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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

ANCIENT

ASIAN

CIVILIZATIONS

Encyclopedia of

ANCIENT ASIAN CIVILIZATIONS

Encyclopedia of

ANCIENT ASIAN
CIVILIZATIONS

Charles F. W. Higham

Facts On File, Inc.

Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations

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Higham, Charles.
Encyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations / Charles E W. Higham.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-8160-4640-9
1. Asia — Civilization — Encyclopedias. 1. Title.
DS12.H5 2003
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Contents

List of Illustrations and Maps

Introduction
xvii

Entries A to Z
1

Chronology

417

Bibliography

420

Index

426

List of Illustrations

AND Maps

Photographs & Illustrations

Statue of Agni, India 3

Fresco painting on the walls of the Ajanta caves, India 5

Amaravati, India 8

Ananda Temple at Pagan, Myanmar (Burma) 11

Sculptured heads of the Bayon temple at Angkor, Cambodia 17

Angkor Wat, Cambodia 19

Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka 21

Sandstone figures oi apsaras, Angkor Wat, Cambodia 24

Banteay Chmar, Cambodia 39
"Citadel of the women," miniature temple of Banteay Srei,

Cambodia 40
Reliefs carved on the walls of the Bayon temple at Angkor,

Cainbodia 46

Medieval temple at Bodh Gaya, India 54

Bodhisattva from Japan's Heian period 54
Chariots, bronze model from Gansu in China, Eastern Han

dynasty 71

Royal centers at Banteay Prei Nokor, Chenla period, Cambodia 75

Stairway of the Tripylon with bas-reliefs 90

Stone dharmacakra from Phra Phatom, Thailand 92

Statue of Siva, Elephanta, India 105

Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, India 106

Haniwa tomb figure, Japan 134

Wall painting of Indra, India 148

Bust of Jayavarman VII, Cambodia 169

Kharoshthi script from Hotan 182

Mud brick walls of Kot Diji, Pakistan 186

List of Illustrations and Maps vii

Lacquered basket found in the Han tomb in the Chinese

commandery of Lelang in northern Korea 193
Flying horse, bronze figure from the Eastern Han dynasty,

China 196

Jade suit of Princess Dou Wan, Han dynasty, China 202

Mencius, in an 18th-century portrait, China 221

Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan 226

Mount Meru, represented at Ta Keo, Cambodia 231

Nisa, southern Turkmenistan 242

An oracle bone from Shang China 248

Pagan, Myanmar (Burma) 256

Sanctuary of Phimai, ancient Vimayapura, Thailand 261

Phnom Rung, Thailand 262

Pre Rup temple, Angkor, Cambodia 267

Terra-cotta army of Emperor Qin Shihuangdi, China 274

Scene from the Ramayana, Thailand 280

Four gateways of the stupa at Sanchi, India 293

Steatite seals, Indus civilization, Pakistan 300

Prince Shotoku, Japan 317

Shrine at Sokkuram, Korea 329

Sulamani temple at Pagan, Myanmar (Burma) 333

Ritual vessel, China 338

Frieze at Taxila, India, showing the Buddha and devotees 344

Terrace of the leper king, Angkor Thom, Cambodia 347

Great Wall of China 367

Wine vessel, from the Western Zhou dynasty, China 374

Bronze wine jug Que), China 386

Yakushi-ji, a Buddhist temple at Heijo-kyo in Japan 394

Yayoi period bronze bell, Japan 404

Maps

Sites in Central Asia ix

Sites in the Indian Subcontinent x

Sites in East and Southeast Asia xii

Sites in Japan and Korea xiv

Sites in the Southeast Asian Islands xv

Central Asia

Elevation in feet

over 10,000

5,000-10,000

2,000-5,000

1,000-2,000

500-1,000

"1 n

300 Km

Indian Subcontinent

Elevation in feet
over 10,000
5,000-10,000
2,000-5,000
1,000-2,000
500-1,000

INDIAN
OCEAN

400 Miles
1 1

1 1
400 Km

1 Ajanta

2 Ellora

3 Ujjain

4 Kausambi

5 Pataliputra

6 Nalanda

7 Bhita

8 Sarnath

9 Sravasti

10 Ahicchatra

11 Mathura, Mat

12 Taxila

13 Kabul

14 Bamiyan

15 Balkh

16 Samarqand.

17 Termez, Fayaz Tepe, Sapillitepa

18 Kaxgar

19 Hotan

20 Niya

21 Dunhuang

22 Turpan

23 Yangi

24 Kuqa

25 Dandan-Oilik

26 Mogau

27 Qandahar

28 Panjikent

29 Kala-i Kahkaha

30 Besnagar

31 Lou-Ian

32 Mir an

33 Rawak

34 Endere, Qiemo

35 Shan-shan

36 Kocho

37 Astana

38 Bezeklyk

39 Kara-tepe

40 Kara-dong

41 Begram, Shotorak, Kham Zargar

42 Hadda, Sahri-Bahlol

43 Dilberjin

44 Dalverzin-tepe

45 Mehrgarh

46 Ay Khanum

47 Ayrtam, Ushtur-MuUa

48 Anuradhapura

49 Mantai

50 Charsada

51 Kusinagara

52 Vaisali

53 Rajagrihar

54 Hastinapura

55 Noh

56 Sonkh

57 Atranjikhera

58 Piprahwa

59 Banawali

60 Ganweriwala

61 Harappa

62 Mohenjo Daro

63 Jhukar

64 Amri

65 Lothal

66 Surkotada

67 Amaravati

68 Sisupalgarh

69 Kaveripumpattinam

70 Banavasi

71 Kondapur

72 Pratisthana

73 Jaugada

74 Arikamedu

75 Broach

76 Kalibangan

77 Chanhu-daro

78 Balakot

79 Allahdino

80 Ghazi Shah

81 Nal

82 Dholavira

83 Balu

84 KotDijl

85 Rehman Deri

86 Jalilpur

87 Damb Sadaat

88 Sothi

89 Siswal

90 Nanaghat

91 Barabar, Lomasa Rishi

92 Bedsa

93 Sikri

94 Nevasa

95 Kuntasi

96 Dalmabad

97 Manda

98 Bhagwanpura

99 Nausharo

100 Ropar

101 Alamgirpur

102 Desalpur

103 Rojdi

104 Dabar Kot

105 Farhad-beg-yailaki

106 Kafyr-kala

107 Surkh Kotal, Rabatak

108 Sanchi

109 Khalchayan

110 Ak Terek, Siyelik

111 Gumla

112 Altyn-tepe

113 Nagarj unakonda

114 Ter

115 Bairat

116 Bari-kot

117 Bharhut

1 18 Chandraketugarh

119 Eran

120 Ayodhya

121 Lewan

122 Mahasthana

123 Pratisthana

124 Prakash

125 Rakhigarhi

126 Rangpur

127 Sankisa

128 Sannathi

129 Sigiri

130 Sothi

131 Sringaverapura

132 Tamluk

133 Tripuri

134 Wari-Bateshwar

135 Charklik

136 Bodh Gaya

137 Bhuraara

138 Bhaja

139 Elephanta

140 Karli

141 Nasik

142 Aihole

143 Badami

144 Pattadakal

145 Khandgiri Udayagiri

146 Hulaskhera

147 Lumbini

148 Lauriya Nandangarh

149 Satanikota

150 Rang Mahal

151 Mamallapuram

152 Kanci

East Asia

DESERT p

Elevation in feet
over 10,000
5,000-10,000
2,000-5,000
1,000-2,000
500-1,000
0-500

1 Wangcheng

2 Xue

3 Linzi

4 Fengchu, Zhuangbai

5 Zhukaigou

6 Kexingzhuang

7 Sanxingdui

8 Yangzishan, Xindu

9 Yaan

10 Yangputou

11 Fuxingdi

12 Niuheliang

13 Zhufeng

14 Taosi

15 Xiajin

16 Xin'gan

1 7 Panlongcheng

18 Zhangjiapo

19 Tianma-Qucun

20 Xiasi

21 Leigudun

22 Mashan, Baoshan, Ying

23 Qiujiahuayuan

24 Tianxingguan

25 Chengziyai

26 Mancheng

27 Chengzi

28 Yinjiacheng

29 Zhufeng

30 Guojiacun

31 Wenjiatun

32 Dafanzhuang

33 Shangwanjiazhuang

34 Simatai

35 Anxi, Mojiaoshan

36 Leitai, Mocuizi

37 Xiaheqing

38 Dunhuang, Mogao

39 Leshan

40 Anyang

41 Luoyang, Jincun

42 Adhyapura

43 Angkor, Ak Yum,
Amarendrapura, Prasat Kravan
Rong Chen

44 Ampil Rolum

45 Angkor Borei, Phnom Da

46 Ban Don Ta Phet

47 Banteay Chmar

48 Banteay Srei,

Koh Ker, Preah Khan of
Kompong Svay

49 Ban Non Wat, Noen U-Loke,
Phimai

50 Banteay Prei Nokor

51 Beng Mealea

52 Beikthano

53 Chansen

54 Co Loa

55 Pagan

56 Thaungthaman

57 Dong Duong

58 Dong Si Mahasod

59 Dong Son

60 Halin

61 Haojiatai

62 Hnaw Kan

63 Hougang

64 Jinyang

65 Jinyanggang

66 Khao Sam Kaeo

67 Khuan Lukpad

68 Kok Kho Khao

69 Khuong My Chanh Lo, Dai An

70 Ku Bua

71 Lopburi

72 Lovea

73 Bianxianwang

74 Chengtoushan

75 Dinggong, Shijia, Sufutun

76 Dujiangyan

77 Erhtou

78 Zhengzhou, Erligang

79 Fuquanshan

80 Sidun

81 Lijiashan

82 Shizhaishan, Yangputou

83 Tianzimao

84 Linjia

85 Liuchengqiao, Mawangdui,
Zudanku

86 Liujiahe

87 MaHao

88 Mrauk-U, Selagiri Hill, Vesali

89 Dhanyawadi

90 Muang Fa Daet

91 Muang Phra Rot

92 Muang Tarn, Phnom Rung

93 Muang Dongkorn

94 Muang Sema

95 My Son

96 Nakhon Pathom, Pong Tuk

97 Nen Chua

98 Oc Eg

99 Phnom Chisor

100 Phnom Wan

101 Pingliangtai

102 Po Nagar

103 Preah Vihear

104 Qufu

105 Satingpra

106 Shangcunling

107 Shijiahe

108 SriKsetra

109 SdokKakThom

110 SriThep

111 Tatxicun

112 Thap Mam

113 Thaton

114 Tonglushan

115 TraKieu

116 U-Taphao

117 U-Thong

118 VietKhe

119 VoCanh

120 Wangchenggang

121 WatPhu

122 Wucheng

123 Wuyang

124 Xintian

125 Xinzheng

126 Yaoshan

127 Yinjiacheng

128 Wat Baset

129 Wat Ban Song Puay

130 Ban Khu Muang

131 Chang'an

132 Go Thap

133 Ishanapura

134 Xianggang

135 Mengzhuang

136 Majiazhuang

137 Qiuwan

138 Zidanku

139 Jinancheng

140 Fufeng

T n —

300 Km

300 Miles
I

PACIFIC
OCEAN

Elevation in feet

P over 10,000
5,000-10,000
2,000-5,000
1,000-2,000

500-1 ,000
0-500

12
13

Kyongju, Choyangdong, Kujongdong,

Panwol-Song, Sokkuram, Kumsong

Jian, Kwanggaet'o

Pyongyang, T'osong-ni

Fushun

Chinpari, Wangxian

Anak

Mongchon, Pungnamni, Sokchondong,

Karakdong, Isong Sansong

Kongju

Paekchonni

Pokchondong

Taesongdong

Koryong

Maunnyong

Pukhan Sansong

15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

27
28

Mount Palgong 29

Kaesong 30

Okchon 31

Toro 32

Itazuke 33
Sugu

Doigahama 34

Santonodai 35

Tano, Udozuka 36

Mikumo 37

Ankokuji 38

Ama, Tenjinyama, Nintoku, Habikino 39

Koganezuka, Naniwa, Takamasuzuka, 40

Udozuka 41

Uriyudo 42

Otsuka 43

Sunazawa

Tomizawa

Yoshinogari

Otsukayama

Muro Miyayama, Shimanosho, Ishibutai,

Asuka, Heijo, Fujiwara

Hiraide

Tatetsuki

Inariyama

Edafunayama

Kanoko

Yoshitake-Tagaki

Higashiyamada-lpponsugi, Futatsukayama

Tounokubi

Sanggyong

Dadianzi

Puso Sansong

Introduction

This volume concentrates on the civiUzations that arose
east of the Caspian Sea. These early civilizations of Asia
developed over a vast territory stretching from the region
of modern Afghanistan and the Aral Sea to Japan and
Korea, and from Sri Lanka (former Ceylon) to the islands
of Southeast Asia. These civilizations developed in the
oases that bordered the arid Taklamakan Desert in western
China and the tropical jungles of Java in Indonesia.
Virtually every major river basin sustained one or more
early states, along rivers like the Yalu, which flowed
through the icy cold of a Korean winter, or the Irrawaddy
and the Chao Phraya, which ran through the pervading
heat of their valleys. Early Western visitors to East and
Southeast Asia were invariably taken aback by the scale
and power of the rulers they encountered. Even the mighty
army of Alexander the Great (356—323 B.C.E.) rebelled at
the prospect of advancing beyond the Beas River into
India. Romans, Greeks, and Persians were keen to trade
with the East but barely gained a foothold on Asian soil.

When intrepid Portuguese friars penetrated the jun-
gles of Cambodia in the 16th century and came across a
great stone city abandoned to the forest, they were so sur-
prised that they could advance only the Roman emperor
Trajan (98-117) or Alexander the Great, rather than the
Cambodians, as being responsible for such magnificence.
Those Portuguese, as many later archaeologists did, at
once recognized the external trappings of what is now
called a state society. They encountered large temples and
walled cities, huge reservoirs, and inscriptions of texts in
an unknown form of writing. Had the people of Angkor
constructed their palaces as well as their temples in
stone, the friars would also have found large, opulent,
and richly ornamented domestic buildings. The discovery
of palace foundations, however, had to await more recent
archaeological excavation.

SIGNS OF CIVILIZATION

Great temples, roads, canals, and reservoirs, together
with tombs and writing, are the hardware of civilization.

The software lies in a social system that can be discerned
through the translation of writing and the inferences
drawn from the archaeological record.

The central operating system of a state lies in the rul-
ing elite. This usually takes the form of a hereditary
dynasty in which the ruler, who, in Japan and Korea, was
frequently a woman, often assumed godlike qualities
linked with an ability to communicate with the ancestors
and spirit world. Administration involved an upper class
of relatives of the ruling dynasty, a bureaucracy of cen-
trally appointed officials, or both. Power was concentrat-
ed in the capital, often located in an urban center that
incorporated a palace, state temples, and quarters for spe-
cialists. Tight control over the military helped ensure the
rulers' continuance in power, but in many early states,
there was a perennial problem of scale, manifested in cen-
trifugal tendencies. The farther from the center, the
greater the temptation to seek independence.

One of the recurrent issues confronting the rulers of
early states in Asia was the success of the harvest.
Whether rice, millet, wheat, or barley, the surplus gener-
ated by the field workers was vital to the well-being of all.
There is much evidence of central concern for predictable
harvests, manifested in state irrigation works, deploy-
ment of increasingly efficient agricultural tools, and
infrastructure for transportation. Essentially, agricultural
and other surpluses were taxed and used to sustain the
administrative system. In many instances this taxation
encouraged a system of currency that took various forms:
cowry shells and cast imitations thereof, measures of gold
and silver, and coins that in India owed much to Greek
prototypes.

INDIGENOUS ASIAN CIVILIZATIONS

In at least two instances it is possible to recognize an
indigenous development of an Asian civilization with
minimal outside influence. The origins of the Indus
Valley civilization can be traced to increasing social com-
plexity in the basin of this river and the surrounding

xviii Introduction

uplands to the north and west, hnked with growing mar-
itime and overland trade with the contemporary civiliza-
tions of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Here are all the
classic hallmarks of an early state system; huge walled
cities -with elite precincts dividing the priests and aristo-
crats from the rest of the urban population; regular
streets, granaries, craft workshops, and domestic houses;
and, most intriguing perhaps to the visitor, an efficient
system of latrines and drains. A written script was used
by at least 3300 B.C.E., but the failure of modern scholars
to read the brief texts means that the administrative and
ruling system remains conjectural. Several large cities
dominated, particularly Mohenjo Daro and Harappa, but
there 'were many smaller centers, villages, and hamlets.

The end of this civilization is dated to the first half of
the second millennium B.C.E., but the reasons for the
decline are not yet clearly defined. Some scholars have
turned for explanation to the Rig-Veda, sacred ritual
hymns, which survived through oral tradition in India
until first transcribed in the 14th century C.E. For millen-
nia Hindu priests have intoned these hymns during reli-
gious ceremonies incorporating the soma ritual. This
ritual involved taking the juice from the soma plant, the
identity of which remains unknown. Some was then
offered to the gods; the rest was imbibed by the priests.
The gods worshiped include the principal Hindu deities
in their early manifestations: Foremost are Agni, the god
of fire; Surya, the Sun god; Rudra, god of storms; and
Indra and Vishnu, the gods of war. The Rig- Veda survives
in Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, and its early
manifestation was once seen as evidence of warriors
arriving in the Indus Valley from the northwest, warriors
who destroyed the cities of the Indus. Few now hold to
this view for lack of archaeological evidence. Indeed
some scholars have even suggested that the Rig- Veda in
essence originated in the Indus cities and actually
describes events that occurred in them.

In any case the Indus civilization did not survive in a
recognizable form beyond the first centuries of the sec-
ond millennium B.C.E. The center of gravity in India then
moved to the Ganges (Ganga)-Jamuna Basin, where a
series of small competing states, known as janapadas,
arose. The elimination and absorption of the weak led to
the formation of larger states, and ultimately by the same
process, the Mauryan state arose to form the first Indian
empire in the fourth century B.C.E.

The second independent development of a civiliza-
tion took place in China from about 2000 B.C.E. For
many years, the central focus for the early Chinese state
lay in the middle reaches of the Huang (Yellovi') River
Valley. Early Chinese histories described the states of Xia
and Shang, including the names of capitals, dynasties,
and kings. Archaeological research has validated these
semimythical states, identified cities, recovered early
written records, and opened the burials of elite leaders.

Even after nearly a century of such research, new discov-
eries are still crowding in. Thus a new Shang capital was
found as recently as 1999 at Huanbai. Excavations have
also revealed the antecedents of the first states, which
reach back to the period of early farming, and extending
through the increasingly complex societies of the loess
land bordering the Huang River. Long-range contact with
the West was manifested by the beginnings of bronze
casting and the adoption of the chariot.

Of even greater significance, there is compelling new
evidence for a parallel development to the south, in the
lands bordering the mighty Chang (Yangtze) River. Here
rice replaced millet as the subsistence base of states
known as the Changjiang civilization. Already by 4000
B.C.E., walled settlements like Chengtoushan were estab-
Hshed. The Liangzhu culture (3200 to 2000 B.C.E.) of the
lower Chang River Valley presents the picture of a com-
plex society, whose leaders were interred in opulent
tombs with fine jade grave goods. The most spectacular
finds are from Sanxingdui in the Sichuan Basin, a huge
walled city and likely capital of the regional state of the
Shu people during the second millennium B.C.E. The
bronze, ivory, gold, and jade offerings recovered from two
sacrificial pits reveal a society no less complex than its
contemporary at Anyang, the capital of the Shang state in
the Huang Valley to the north.

In north China, the Shang dynasty was replaced in
1045 B.C.E. by the Zhou rulers. The Western Zhou kings
controlled a considerable area. However, their policy of
sending royal relatives to rule over newly conquered
regions in due course weakened the center, as regional
lords assumed their own power bases and formed their
own states. In addition, the states known to the Chinese
as Shu and Chu continued to flourish in the Chang Valley
independent of the Zhou. This policy, with the transition
to the Eastern Zhou period in 770 B.C.E., led to the weak-
ening of the royal house; as rival states entered into
increasingly bellicose relationships, the state of Qin
emerged as the dominant force. By 221 B.C.E., the first
emperor, Qin Shihuangdi, had vanquished his last rivals.
His dynasty, however, was short lived, being succeeded by
the Western and then the Eastern Han. This period of
empire, v\rhich ended in 220 C.E., saw the establishment
of an enduring Chinese state that exercised considerable
influence on its borders.

OTHER STATES IN EARLY ASIA

The development of powerful states in China and India
during the first millennium B.C.E. had a potent effect on
the cultures with which they came into contact. Many
new states mushroomed in the wake of international
trade relations, wars of undisguised imperial conquest, or
exposure to nev/ ideas and ideologies. To the northeast,
the Han policy of imperial expansion during the second
century B.C.E. sav^r the establishment of the commandery.

Introduction xix

or province, of Lelang in northern Korea. This imposition
of an alien regime in the midst of already sophisticated
societies was, at least in part, a stimulus for the rise of
four Korean states — Koguryo, Shilla, Paekche, and Kaya.
By the fourth century C.E., the Chinese had withdrawn
from their foothold in the Korean Peninsula, and the
rulers of these states fought among themselves. In the
seventh century, the rulers of Shilla allied themselves
with the Chinese Tang emperor to vanquish all rivals and
to establish the first pan-Korean state. Unified Shilla.

Across the Tsushima Strait in Japan, the adoption of
sophisticated techniques for rice cultivation on the Han
model, together with the construction of irrigation
v\rorks, underpinned emerging statelets concentrated in
Kyushu and the margins of the Inland Sea. The rulers
built for themselves gigantic mounded tombs, the largest
of which reached a length of nearly half a kilometer. The
Nihongi, an indigenous historical record completed in the
early eighth century C.E., names a sequence of emperors
and empresses, together with their capitals, temples, and
palaces. Tracing these sites and opening them by excava-
tion have yielded a rich harvest of new information. The
Nara plain, east of modern Osaka, was a focus for the
early Japanese state, with royal tombs and the remains of
great cities at Fujiwara and Heijo, which were built along
the lines of the Chinese capital of Chang'an. In 1961, a
vital discovery revealed that mokkan, written records on
wooden slips, survived at Heijo in considerable quanti-
ties. These illuminated the detailed workings of aristo-
cratic households and court functionaries. Linked with
the excavations in royal palaces and Buddhist temples,
the features of the early Nara state of the eighth century
have emerged clearly defined from oblivion.

With the end of the Han dynasty in the early third
century, China was divided into three states. The south-
ern kingdom of Wu had no access to the lucrative Silk
Road that linked China with the West, and the emperor
sent emissaries south to seek a possible maritime link
with the worlds of India and Rome. To their considerable
surprise, the emissaries encountered a state that they
named Funan, located on the delta of the Mekong River
in modern Vietnam and Cambodia. Their report, which
has survived, described a palace and walled settlements, a
system of taxation and laws, written records, and the
presence of craft specialists. Rice was cultivated, and
there was vigorous trade.

Once again, archaeology has verified these written
accounts. Air photography before the Second World War
revealed the outline of moated and walled cities on the
flat delta landscape, linked by canals that radiated,
straight as arrows, between the centers. At ground level,
the French archaeologist Louis Malleret in 1944 excavat-
ed the city of Oc Eo and traced the outlines of brick tem-
ple foundations, jewelry workshops, and house
foundations. Dating this city was facilitated by the dis-

covery of coins minted by Roman emperors of the second
century C.E. Since the end of the war in Vietnam in 1975,
research has raced ahead. Many more sites have been
identified, and the inscriptions, written in Sanskrit and
employing the Indian Brahmi script, record the presence
of kings and queens who took Indian names and founded
temples dedicated to Indian gods. Wooden statues of the
Buddha have survived in the delta mud.

Funan was one of many small mercantile states that
prospered by participating in a great trade network now
known as the maritime Silk Road. A two-way trade vidth
the Indian subcontinent saw gold and spices heading
west, while bronzes, glass and carnelian ornaments, and
novel ideas entered Southeast Asia. Along the coast of
Vietnam, temples dedicated to Siva and other Hindu
gods, as well as Sanskrit texts, document the rise of the
Cham states. Chams spoke an Austronesian language,
unlike their neighbors in Southeast Asia, and they domi-
nated this coastal tract with its restricted river floodplains
until the march to the south by the Vietnamese that
ended in the I8th century. The rich soil of Java sustained
kingdoms that were responsible for Borobudur, the
largest Buddhist monument known, dating to the ninth
century, while the demand in the west for cloves and nut-
megs saw the Spice Islands of Southeast Asia prosper.

The broad floodplain of the Chao Phraya River in
Thailand witnessed the rise of a state known from its
inscriptions, in the Mon language, as Dvaravati. Here are
large, moated centers dominated by temples dedicated to
the Buddha, which rose at the same time as the Funan state
to the south. Small states developed along the coast of
peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, as goods were trans-
shipped from the Gulf of Siam to the ports on the Andaman
Sea. One major trading state, known as Srivijaya, arose at
Palembang on the island of Sumatra. To the west, the Pyu
civilization of the dry zone in modern Myanmar (Burma)
bequeathed great cities at Halin, Beikthano, and Sri Ksetra.
On the Arakan coast, the part of Southeast Asia most
exposed to trade with India, there are reports of visits by
the Buddha himself, and cities were founded at
Dhanyav^radi and Vesali, complete with palaces and temples.

Local origins are common to all these states that bur-
geoned along the maritime Silk Road. Explorations into
their prehistoric ancestry reveal growing cultural com-
plexity, as chiefs rose up and took advantage of the new
opportunities afforded by international trade. Indian
influence is seen in the Sanskrit and Pali languages, the
Brahmi script, and Hindu gods. Beneath the surface of the
Pyu, Dvaravati, Funan, and Cham civilizations lies a
strong local culture. These cultures continued well into
the second millennium C.E. In Cambodia the civilization
of Angkor grew into a major regional power. Pagan was
the center of the Burmese civilization. The Chams con-
tinued to flourish until the predatory Vietnamese began
their march south.

XX Introduction

THE SILK ROAD AND THE RISE AND FALL
OF CULTURES

The Silk Road itself was a labyrinth of trackways that
began with the Gansu corridor in western China. It then
skirted north and south of the arid Tarim Basin, before
reaching the crossroads that lay in the valleys of the Syr
Dar'ya and Amu Dar'ya Rivers as they flowed north to the
Aral Sea. Here it was possible to strike south into
Afghanistan and India or to continue in a westerly direc-
tion, south of the Caspian Sea, to the Black Sea and the
Mediterranean.

This route was an ancient one, followed, it seems, by
early farmers trekking east, who founded settlements in
the Tarim oases during the third millennium B.C.E. There,
in the dry wastes, are 4,000-year-old cemeteries contain-
ing the remains of fair-skinned people with European fea-
tures, interred with woven plaid textiles, sprigs of
ephedra (a hallucinatory plant), and trousers and boots.
Their descendants in all probability spoke Tocharian, an
Indo-European language. It was along this route that
knowledge of bronze working and the chariot reached
China. The Silk Road was a conduit for the arrival of
Buddhist teachings in China and ultimately Korea and
Japan. At Mogao, east of the Taklamakan Desert, are
some of the finest Buddhist shrines anywhere.

The Chinese Han dynasty's establishment of peaceful
conditions in the second century B.C.E., always problein-
atical where steppe horsemen might intervene, promoted
the development of states along the eastern stepping
stones of the Silk Road. When the archaeologist-explorers
Sven Hedin and Sir Aurel Stein reached the deserts of far
western China a century ago, they encountered the
remains of walled cities, roads, even ancient vineyards.
Letters and royal orders on wood and leather have sur-
vived, in an Indian script dating to the third century C.E.
These illuminate the kingdoms of Shan-shan, Sogdiana,
and Hotan and their oasis cities at Niya, Endere,
Panjikent, and Lou-Ian.

The crossroads of Asia, where the routes south into
India bisect the Silk Road south of the Aral Sea, have seen
the rise and fall of many civilizations. Under the rule of
Cyrus the Great (ruled c. 585-c. 529 B.C.E.), the
Achaemenid empire of Persia expanded east, incorporat-
ing the Indus Valley as its 20th province during the reign
of Darius the Great in the early fifth century B.C.E.
Achaemenid rule came to an end with the defeat of Darius
III at the hands of Alexander the Great at the Battle of
Gaugamela (modern Iraq) in 331 B.C.E., setting in motion
the beginning of the Greek control of this region. Under
Seleucus Nicator (356-281 B.C.E.), one of Alexander's
generals and ruler of the former Persian Empire, Greek
influence was profoundly felt through the foundation of
cities, the construction of temples, and the minting of
coins bearing the images of many Bactrian Greek kings. At
Ay Khanum in Afghanistan and Sirkap in Pakistan are

cities that match their contemporaries in Greece itself.
This powerful wave of Hellenistic influence can be seen in
the Gandharan art style as well as in theaters and mau-
soleums, for example, at Ay Khanum. However, the
Seleucid empire was on the wane by the mid-second cen-
tury B.C.E., and from its remnants arose the Parthians in
the region southeast of the Caspian Sea. They briefly held
sway over the great center of Merv (modern Mary in
Turkmenistan), reaching down into the Indus Valley.

The Kushans, however, were to exert a major influ-
ence in this area. Moving west from China, these initially
nomadic groups settled south of the Aral Sea by the
end of the second century B.C.E., and under a line of
potent rulers beginning with Kujula Kadphises, they
came to rule a large empire south into India, with a capi-
tal at Purusapura (modern Peshawar). King Kanishka,
who took the title devaputra, or son of god, showed a
deep interest in Hinduism. By 200 C.E., Persian power
resurfaced with the Sasanid dynasty under Ardashir I
(224-241). Sassanian control of the strategic Merv Oasis
and this central part of the Silk Road provided a welcome
element of stability. By the third century C.E., a Christian
monastery was founded at Merv.

From the fifth century C.E., however, the Sassanians
came under mounting pressure from the Hephthalite
Huns to the east, a people of shadowy origins, whose
prowess as mounted cavalrymen and archers was feared.
After the defeat and death of their king, Firuz, in 484, the
Sassanians paid tribute in coinage to the Hephthalites,
largely to keep the peace on their eastern frontier, until
the reign of Khosrow I in the mid-sixth century C.E.
Hephthalite territory at this juncture included Tok-
haristan and much of Afghanistan. They conquered Sog-
diana in 509 and extended their authority as far east as
Urumqi in northwest China. By 520, they controlled this
area and in India came up against the western frontiers of
the Gupta empire under King Bhuhagupta. Under their
own king, Toramana, the Hephthalites seized the Punjab,
Kashmir, and Rajputana; Toramana's successor, Mihi-
rakula, established his capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot
in Pakistan). He was a devotee of Siva, and this was a
period of devastation for the venerable Buddhist monas-
teries in Pakistan and India, many of which were sacked
and destroyed. The last Hephthalite king, Yudhishthira,
ruled until about 670, when he was replaced by the
Turkish dynasty knov\Ti as the Shahi.

STRANDS OF EARLY ASIAN CIVILIZATIONS

The pattern underlying early Asian civilizations entails
three strands. The first involves the origin and flowering of
the indigenous states. Two can be identified: The earlier
was centered in the Indus Basin and flourished during the
fourth millennium B.C.E., before the cities were abandoned
and the focus of Indian civilization moved to the Ganges
(Ganga) and Yamuna Valleys. The later, and most durable.

Introduction xxi

began in catchments of the two great rivers of China, the
Chang and the Huang. Here there was a twin development
of agriculture, with rice dominating the balmier south and
millet the colder north. Again cultural complexity devel-
oped in tandem in both areas, as did the early states, Xia
and Shang in the central plains of the Huang River and
Changjiang in the land bordering the Chang.

The second strand involved the development of what
might be termed "secondary civilizations" in areas that
came under the influence of China, India, or both. While
Chinese influence was strongly felt in Korea and Japan,
the impact of Buddhism cannot be discounted. To the
south, the states of the maritime Silk Road developed
from indigenous chiefdoms, retaining their autonomy
but prospering through the enriching influence of India
and China. The same cross-fertilization of ideas between
local inhabitants and foreign traders may be identified on
the Silk Road itself.

The third and most complex contributor to the pat-
tern of Asian civilization lies in the regions where east

met west through the expansion of the Greek and Persian
Empires and the intrusion of Sakas or Scythians,
Kushans, and Hephthalite Huns. This region, centering
on modern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and the
basins of the Syr Dar'ya and Amu Dar'ya Rivers, is one of
the most interesting areas, because of the variety of peo-
ples, religions, languages, and cultures that came and
went, each contributing and at the same time adapting to
the ways of other societies.

Today Asia teems with humanity. Its billions of peo-
ple speak thousands of languages. Its contribution to the
development of the human species outweighs that of any
other part of the globe: the domestication of rice, the
largest mortuary complexes, two of the world's great reli-
gions, massive temples, cast iron, paper, silk, writing,
universities, totalitarian states, the crossbow, outstanding
works of art — the list is endless. The development of
Asian civilizations from their first foundations is a key to
understanding Asia today.

Entries A to Z

Abeyadana temple The Abeyadana temple, at PAGAN
in modern Myanmar (Burma), is thought to have been
inspired by the queen of King Kyanzittha (1084-1112
C.E.). It includes a large, rectangular, central temple
adjoining a rectangular hall. A large brick image of the
Buddha dominates the temple; some of the inner walls
are embellished with frescoes of Hindu gods, such as
Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, and Indra.

Abhayagiri Abhayagiri, a monastery at ANURADHAPURA
in modern Sri Lanka (Ceylon), was founded by King
Vattagamani Abhaya in the early first century B.C.E. It
enjoyed royal patronage until the last days of Anuradha-
pura itself. Under King Gajabahu (114-136 C.E.), the
Abhayagiri stupa (Buddhist shrine) reached the enor-
mous height of 84 meters (277 ft.). In the fifth century
C.E., it was visited by the Chinese monk EAXIAN, who
described a jade image of the Buddha standing six meters
(20 ft.) high. There were ceaseless ceremonials there, sug-
gesting that MAHAYANA BUDDHISM, the high ritual form of
the religion, was in favor.

abhiseka An ahhiseka is a plaque used in consecration
ceremonies for Buddhist kings in Southeast Asia. Such
plaques have strong Hindu traditions, and the symbols on
them are highly significant. An example in steatite was
recovered in 1965 during the construction of a road from
the ancient city of VESALI to the later capital of MRAUK-U in
the Rakhine (formerly ARAKAn) region of western Myan-
mar (Burma). The steatite plaque was used as the support
for a bronze vessel found at the same time. The decoration
represents the universe, bounded by a wall depicted as the

raised, square edge of the plaque; the four continents
within are seen as lotuses at each corner. A circular frieze
of lotus petals in the center represents MOUNT MERU, the
home of the gods; a second circular frieze incorporates
symbols of royal mystical power. These include the sri-
vatsa (mother goddess) motif, a conch shell, a cornucopia
and fish, all of which are deemed to bring prosperity to
the kingdom. A fly whisk, elephant goad, parasol, and
bull are also depicted, and all are symbols of powerful
kingship. Such symbols are evident in many other con-
texts in Southeast Asia, not least in the reliefs depicting
King SURYAVARMAN II at ANGKOR WAT in Cambodia. A pea-
cock and a deer on the plaque represent the Sun and the
Moon; a pillar and goose indicate the conjunction of
heaven and Earth. These esoteric powers are deemed to
enter the king's person through the lustral water con-
tained in the bronze bowl that the plaque supports. Its
closest parallels are found in the ceramic abhisckas found
in the Dvaravati sites of central Thailand.
See also DVARAVATI CIVILIZATION.

Achaemenid empire At its height, during the fifth
century B.C.E. , the Achaemenid empire stretched from
Albania in the west to TAXILA and the course of the Indus
Valley in the east, and from the Aral Sea to Cyrene in
modern Libya, including western Asia and Egypt.
Founded by Cyrus the Great (r. c. 585-c. 529 B.C.E.), the
empire was organized into provinces. In the east, these
included, from north to south, Khwarizm south of the
Aral Sea, SOGDIANA in the headwaters of the Syr Dar'ya
River, Arachosia and Gedrosia in Baluchistan, and BACTRIA,
Margiana, and GANDHARA in Afghanistan. The eastern

2 acupuncture

conquests were stimulated by the desire of Cyrus for a
stable frontier against the Scythians, as well as by an
imperialist impulse to seize and exploit territory. His pol-
icy included the foundation of frontier settlements, of
which Cyropolis in the valley of the Syr Dar'ya River is
best known. In the late sixth century B.C.E., a succeeding
king, Darius the Great (r. 522—489 B.C.E.), led a campaign
in the east that is said to have reached the shores of the
Aral Sea. During the ensuing several years, the Persians
conquered the area of modern northern Pakistan, and sol-
diers from the eastern provinces vi'ere prominent in the
Achaemenid army. The empire ended with the defeat of
Darius III by ALEXANDER THE GREAT at the Battle of
Gaugamela (modern Iraq) in 331 B.C.E.

However, the two centuries of Achaemenid rule saw
much cultural interaction between the center and the
east. Scythians, Bactrians, Arachosians, Gandharans, and
Indians are all depicted on the reliefs of Persepolis, the
Persian ceremonial center in modern south Iran. The
Scythians wear their characteristic pointed caps and carry
short swords; the Bactrians are seen holding cups and
guiding a Bactrian camel with a bell around its neck. The
Indian wears a headband and a short kilt and carries ves-
sels in baskets slung from a wooden holder supported
over the shoulders, just like those still seen in India
today. This intercourse and travel exposed participants to
one of the world's great empires, involving knowledge of
the Aramaic script and methods of administration. Both
eased the consolidation of the conquest by Alexander the
Great and his forces.

Further reading: Briant, P. From Cyrus to Alexander:
A History of the Persian Empire. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisen-
brauns, 2002; Dandamaev, M. A. Political History of the
Achaemenid Empire (Ancient Near East). Leiden: Brill,
1997; Dusinberre, E. R. M. Aspects of Empire in
Achaemenid Sardis. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2003.

acupuncture Acupuncture has been a central part of
traditional Chinese medicine for more than 2,000 years.
A set of four gold needles has been recovered from the
tomb of Prince Jing of Zhongshan, dated to the Western
HAN DYNASTY (206 B.C.E. -9 C.E.). Three different types of
needles are represented, each having its own special func-
tion. An engraving from an Eastern Han tomb in Shan-
dong province shows a creature with a human head and
arms and a bird's body performing acupuncture on a
kneeling patient.

Adhyapura Adhyapura, a site located in the Mekong
Valley near the border between modern Cambodia and
Vietnam, is notable as the home base of a highly ranked
family that provided ministers to five kings, spanning the
transition from the state of FUNAN to CHENLA (c. 550 C.E.)

and beyond. One family member, named Simhadatta, was
the doctor of JAYAVARMAN I of Chenla and the governor of
Adhyapura in 667 C.E.

Afrasiab Afrasiab is the ancient name for Samarqand,
once a province of Russian Turkestan and now the name
of a city and province in Uzbekistan. The city was a
major center of both the Bactrian Greeks (250 B.C.E.— 10
C.E.) and of SOGDIANA in the period from 200 B.C.E. up to
the Arab conquests of the eighth century C.E. In the sev-
enth century, Afrasiab covered an area of 214 hectares
(535 acres) and minted its own coinage. The Sogdians
grew wealthy through irrigation agriculture and control
of the SILK ROAD. Their town houses and palaces were
constructed of compressed loess and mud brick, and the
interior walls were coated with clay. Mural paintings are a
particular feature of these stately residences. One paint-
ing reveals a delegation of HEPHTHALITE HUNS; another
shows an elegant boat with waterfowl. The Sogdians,
through extensive trade contacts and the remote colonies
of their merchants, incorporated foreign motifs into their
outstanding silver metalwork as well as their religious art.
They were Zoroastrians, followers of an ancient Iranian
religion, but there were also small groups of Christians
and Buddhists among the inhabitants. The religious art of
Sogdiana shows the adoption of local and foreign ele-
ments into Zoroastrianism, such as an Indian-style four-
armed depiction of an ancient Mesopotamian goddess.
Nana.

A mural from Afrasiab, from the house of a wealthy
aristocrat, shows foreign ambassadors arriving at the
court, probably of King Varkhuman, in about 660 C.E.
An inscription states that one of the delegates was from
a small state known as Chaganiyan. Others traveled
from China and as far afield as Korea. The Chinese are
seen presenting silks to the king. The southern wall of
this same chamber shows King Varkhuman in a proces-
sion, visiting a holy shrine probably dedicated to his
ancestors.

Agni Agni, the god of fire in early Indian religion, is
mentioned in the Rig- Veda around 1500 to 1000 B.C.E. He
had three principal manifestations: as fire itself, as light-
ning, and as the Sun. The crackling of a fire was the god
Agni speaking. He had seven arms and rode a chariot
pulled by red horses. The presence of fire altars in the
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION sites might indicate that Agni
was already part of the pantheon in the third millennium
B.C.E. The construction of a fireplace or altar, known as
agnicayana, in SANSKRIT, was a vital part of Vedic ritual.
The agnihotri (priest) was responsible for maintaining the
sacred flame. The Rig-Veda describes Agni as the illumi-
nator of darkness, guardian of cosmic order, and recipient
of daily homage.

Airlangga 3

Agni is the Hindu god of fire. He has a long ancestry, going
back to the Rig-Veda. The name of this god was chosen for
India's missile armed with a nuclear warhead. This image of
Agni comes from a South Indian temple panel dating to the
17th century. (Victoria & Albert Museum, London/Art
Resource, NY)

Agnimitra (ruled c. 148-140 B.C.E.) Agnimitra was the
second king of the Sunga dynasty in the lower Ganges
(Ganga) Valley of India.

He succeeded his father Pushyamitra after a period when
Agnimitra governed the Sunga province of Vidisa. There
he exercised a considerable measure of independence. He
was succeeded after ruling for eight years by his son
Sujyeshtha.

Ahicchatra Ahicchatra, a city in the upper Ganges
(Ganga) Valley of northern fndia, was occupied from the
fourth century B.C.E. to around 1100 C.E. According to
Raymond AUchin, it was a city falling into the third size
grade of Mauryan centers, with an area of between 121
and 180 hectares (300 and 450 acres). This area, how-
ever, is defined by a mud wall built during the early part
of the fourth phase of the city's life at the beginning of the
first century C.E. In the seventh century C.E., the site was
visited by the Chinese monk XUANZANG, who described
10 Buddhist monasteries and nine Hindu temples there,
in a city built on a strongly fortified location. The sur-
rounding country, he said, produced wheat and rice and
had many springs and woods.

It is clear that the site was continuously occupied for
a lengthy period. Excavations undertaken in 1940—44
and again in 1963-65 followed initial work by SIR ARTHUR
CUNNINGHAM, who opened a stupa and found a steatite
foundation deposit containing pearls, glass, and an amber
bead. The excavations examined the defenses and interior
mounds and identified nine periods of occupation, begin-
ning in the late prehistoric period and lasting until about
1100 C.E. The dating of the successive layers and defenses
has been undertaken on the basis of ceramic typology
and the coins recovered. The second and third phases
from the base reflect a Mauryan period of occupation, fol-
lowed by layers containing Kushan coins and coins con-
temporary with the GUPTA EMPIRE. A Gupta temple was
also uncovered, designed in the form of terraces and ded-
icated to SIVA. It was finely decorated with terra-cotta
images of the gods Gaga and Yamuna. The defenses were
improved on at least two occasions with the addition of
brickwork, and an interior wall was constructed to divide
the city into two sectors after the construction of the
Gupta temple. The city itself seems to have been deserted
by about 1100 C.E.

See also MAURYA EMPIRE.

Aihole The complex of temples at Aihole (formerly
Aryapur) in southern India was the creation of the
CHALUKYA DYNASTY (sixth to eighth centuries C.E.). The
temples crowd in a walled precinct 500 by 500 meters
(1,650 ft.) in extent on the bank of the Malprabha River
in Karnataka. The Meguti temple, built in 636 C.E. by
King Ravikirti, commands an eminence overlooking the
site as a whole. Dedicated to JAINISM, the complex
includes a notable inscription that describes the military
prowess of King Pulakesin II. The earliest temple, known
as Lad Khan after a villager who had used it as a cattle
byre, was adorned with images of the major Hindu deities,
including Vishnu, Garuda, and Surya. The Durga temple
is regarded as one of the most impressive in this remark-
able site. Raised on a decorated plinth, it presents a mas-
sive appearance that is due to its broad exterior columns.

Airlangga (ruled 1016-1049) Airlangga was the king of
a major East javan trading state in modern Indonesia,
known for its wealth and power.

He rose to power after the defeat of his predecessors by
the Srivijayan state, but during a period of Srivijayan
weakness he had founded a capital in the vicinity of
Surabaya and controlled not only the rich volcanic BRAN-
TAS RIVER basin but increasingly also the spice trade. One
of his major achievements was to dam the Brantas River
to control flooding and increase the area of land under
irrigation for rice cultivation. He also grew wealthy from
trade, particularly with China. His court is recalled for its
literary output. Airlangga considered himself to be an

4 Airtam

incarnation of the Indie god Vishnu, and his mausoleum
at Balahan incorporated a statue of him riding on Garuda,
the eagle mount of the god. Before his death, he retired to
become an ascetic and left his kingdom divided between
t-wo sons. Janggala was the name of the polity east of the
Brantas River, but it was soon absorbed by Kederi, the
kingdom on the western bank.
See also SRIVIJAYA.

Airtam Airtam, a village on the Amu Dar'ya River 13
kilometers (8 mi.) south of TERMEZ in modern Uzbek-
istan, is a large, undefended settlement, whose history
dates back to the fourth century B.C.E. Covering an area
at least three kilometers in length, the site has been par-
tially destroyed by river erosion. In 1932 a Russian sol-
dier discovered a large stone slab that had formed the
main part of a remarkable frieze dating to the Kushan
period (70-200 C.E.). The slab has carved figures of
musicians and a border of acanthus leaves. After a suc-
cessful search for more pieces, the reconstructed lime-
stone frieze -was found to be seven meters (23 ft.) in
length. On one side of the frieze are figures holding gar-
lands of flowers; on the other are musicians. Both groups
are thought to have been taking part in the ritual of
preparing the body of the dead Buddha for cremation.

RESULTS OF LATER EXCAVATIONS

Excavations followed in the 1930s and again in 1979,
when a bridge was constructed over the Amu Dar'ya
River. It was found that the site had a long history, begin-
ning with the construction of a brick temple during the
BACTRIAN GREEK period. This construction extended over
a distance of 50 meters (165 ft.) from east to west. On
excavation, the walls survived to a height of 1.7 meters
(5.6 ft.); within the buildup of sand deposited after the
site's abandonment, three coins were found. Two of these
belong to the second half of the reign of the Kushan king
KUJULA KADPHISES and thus date the building earlier than
the first century C.E. Galina Pugachenkova has suggested
that this temple might have been dedicated to the local
river god Okhsho, whose name survives in the name of
the Vaksh River. The structure, however, was not com-
pleted, perhaps because of the troubled times associated
with the invasions of nomadic SAKAS.

This destruction of Airtam was followed by a period
of abandonment, before Buddhist influence entered the
area under the tolerant policy of the Kushans and many
temples vi^ere constructed in sites along the Amu Dar'ya
River. Important constructions of this period are seen at
TERMEZ, KARA TEPE, AND DALVERZIN TEPE (Uzbekistan). At
Airtam this development was manifested by the Buddhist
temple whose limestone frieze the soldier had discovered.
On reconstruction and further analysis, it was found that
there were two matching friezes, one containing images
of female celestial musicians and the second with figures
making offerings of flowers.

The temple was associated with at least two stupas
and was surrounded by a wall that included what were
thought to be a kitchen and a storage room. The plan is
distinctive to this region and is matched at other sites,
including DILBERJIN and Kara Tepe. Its extent -was given an
additional dimension -when a bulldozer cut through the
opening to a subterranean complex lined in brick; at least
one of the chambers -was probably used for meditation.

The date of the temple was not surely kno-wn until
the 1979 excavation season, when the base of a stone
stela was found. It was decorated with figures of a man
and a woman, preserved up to the level of the knees. An
inscription in the Bactrian script -was incised on the base.
Dated to the fourth year of the reign of King Huvishka (c.
140 C.E.), it named a certain Shodija as the benefactor
who had built the large structure. The two figures on the
fragmentary stela are probably Shodija and his wife. They
are shod in Indian-style foot-wear. Even the sculptor's
name is known: He was one Mirzad, who probably hailed
from Persia, if his name is any guide.

Airtam declined in the third and fourth centuries,
probably as a result of conflict associated with the Sassa-
nian expansion into this region. There is much evidence
of destruction, seen in the broken statue fragments, the
overturned and shattered foundation inscription, and the
looting of Buddhist relic chambers that contained pre-
cious offerings.

See also BUDDHISM; SASSANIAN EMPIRE; TERMEZ.

Ajanta Ajanta, one of the most famous rock temple
sites of India, is located on the outer bend of the Wag-
ora River in Maharashtra state. The 30 caves cut into
the granite were built by Buddhists between the second
century B.C.E. and the seventh century C.E., and their
walls are decorated with frescoes and sculpture.

The caves, concealed by forest, were discovered more
than a millennium after they had been deserted in the
early I9th century. Already by 1844, the directors of the
East India Company had urged the British government to
preserve and record these caves, and a Captain Gill was
charged with the responsibility of recording the paintings
there. At the same time SIR ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM
wrote that the temples would contain treasures, which
should be excavated and analyzed.

The caves of Ajanta, even after extensive pillaging
and destruction, are among the jewels in the crown of
Buddhist art. The caves form caityas (sanctuaries) and
viharas (monasteries), heavily carved and decorated with
fresco paintings that depict scenes in the life of the Bud-
dha. Because the Buddha experienced life in all its rich
variety, the scenes evoke many aspects of life in early
India beyond the strictly religious — the rhythms of the
court and life in towns and villages, as well as in the
monasteries themselves. The ultimate purpose of the
paintings was educational, to instruct and inform pil-

Ak Yum 5

The fresco painting on the walls of the Ajanta caves in India
are world famous. This example from cave 1 shows servants
pouring holy water over a prince before his coronation.
(O Lindsay Hebberd/CORBIS)

grims and novices about the principal events in the life of
the Buddha that led to his enlightenment, in the same
way that the reliefs of the great sanctuary of BOROBUDUR
in Java were a medium of instruction.

See also BUDDHISM.

Anawrahta (r. 1044-1077) Anawrahta a king of Burma,
is best known for reinforcing devotion to BUDDHISM by
attacking the ruler of the city of THATON, Shin Arahan, and
taking sacred texts, senior monks, and members of the royal
family back to Pagan.

The king of Thaton was sent to serve in the Shwezigon
temple in the city of PAGAN. Seeking other sacred Bud-
dhist relics, Anawrahta led his forces to the cities of
Prome and ARAKAN (modern Rakhine), where he made an
unsuccessful attempt to seize the venerable MAHAMUNI
statue of the Buddha, the only one thought to have been
modeled after the actual likeness of the Buddha himself.
He also had many temples and stupas, as well as irriga-
tion works, constructed. It is recorded that he died after
being gored by a buffalo.

ancestor worship

CHINA

Veneration for the ancestors has a long history in China,
from the remote prehistoric past to the present. Ancestor
worship during the period of the late Shang dynasty
(13th— 1 1th centuries B.C.E.) is well attested through texts
inscribed on ORACLE BONES. There were three principal
ways of undertaking the appropriate rituals for dead
ancestors. One was by burning offerings, another by leav-
ing offerings in water, and the third by burying sacrificial
objects, including humans and animals, in the ground
near the burial place of a notable ancestor or in the vicin-
ity of an ancestral temple. Thus at the royal necropolis at

ANYANG (1200-1050 B.C.E.), thousands of sacrificial vic-
tims have been unearthed. Similar rituals have been doc-
umented at many later historic sites, such as Majiazhuang
in Shaanxi province, an EASTERN ZHOU DYNASTY (770-221
B.C.E.) royal center where the ancestral temples incorpo-
rated sacrificial pits containing the remains of people,
sheep, cattle, and chariots.

The association of highly ranked individuals in soci-
ety with sacrificial offerings can be traced back into the
prehistoric past. The LONGSHAN CULTURE (2500-1900
B.C.E.), for example, included many sites from Shandong
to the upper reaches of the Huang (Yellow) River. The
excavated cemeteries reveal the presence of a limited
number of rich individuals, interred with objects known
to have had important ritual uses later during the historic
period. At the Shandong Longshan site of CHENGZI, four
groups of graves were identified by rank. The excavators
found that only the richest were associated with pits con-
taining ash, complete pottery vessels, and pig bones.
These pits have been interpreted as containing offerings
for important ancestors.

Drums with alligator-skin covers were restricted to
royal graves at Anyang (1200—1050 B.C.E.). Such a drum
has been found with a rich grave at the Longshan ceme-
tery of TAOSI (2200-2000 B.C.E.). Earher still, at the Ban-
shan phase YANGSHAO CULTURE site of Yangshan in
Qinghai province, excavations uncovered 218 burials
thought to represent an entire cemetery dated to about
2300 B.C.E. Three particularly rich graves with multiple
burials included ceramic drums, as well as marble tubes
and beads and ceremonial axes. These rich interments
were also those around which sacrificial pits clustered.
Similar associations of pits containing the remains of sac-
rificed animals, stone tools, and pottery vessels have been
recovered at Longgangsi in southern Shaanxi province.
This site belongs to the Banpo phase of the YANGSHAO
CULTURE and dates to the late fifth millennium B.C.E.

SOUTHEAST ASIA

Throughout the late prehistoric period in mainland
Southeast Asia, the dead were interred in patterned ceme-
teries structured, it is thought, on the basis of family or
ancestral relationships. Proximity to the ancestors was
evidently an important factor in determining where peo-
ple were interred. Infants were often buried in the arms
of a female or in a pottery vessel beside a woman's head
or feet. With the historic period and the availability of
written records, it is possible to turn to inscriptions to
evaluate the role played by ancestors in determining an
individual's status in society. It is known that archivists
and genealogists maintained records. Thus the official
Sukavarman at PREAH VIHEAR in Cambodia maintained
the royal archives on leaves stored in the temple. These
records traced the royal genealogy back to the mythical
founders of the kingdom of ANGKOR in Cambodia. The

ancestor worship 13

CHENLA period (550-800 C.E.) inscriptions reveal a wide
range of local deities, both male and female, but their
identification with ancestors is not specified.

With the richer textual record following the estab-
lishment of the kingdom of Angkor in 802 C.E., the
fusion of ancestors with the gods is documented. There
are six shrines at King INDRAVARMANl's temple of PREAH
KO at HARIHARALAYA. The three towers of the front row
were dedicated to Rudravarman and Prithivindravarman,
representing Indravarman's maternal grandfather and
father, and the central tower was dedicated to JAYAVAR-
MAN II under his posthumous name, Paramesvara. The
three sanctuaries in the second row were dedicated to
the principal consorts of each lord, Narendradevi,
Prithivindradevi, and Dharanindradevi. Each shrine
■would have contained an image of the ancestor, and it is
notable that their names -were combined with that of SIVA
by using the suffix -esvara. Thus Rudravarman was
named Rudresvara. The eight small sanctuaries placed
uniformly around the base of the adjacent BAKONG pyra-
mid probably acknowledged male and female ancestors
of Indravarman, for the eastern set incorporates male fig-
ures on exterior niches, whereas the -western ones have
females. When his son YASHOVARMANI completed the
island shrine of LOLEI in the Indtratataka reservoir, the
four shrines were dedicated, respectively, to his father,
maternal grandfather, mother, and maternal grand-
mother. Again the names of each combine that of the
royal ancestor with the name of a god. The tradition -was
maintained when Harshavarman I, son of Yashovarmani,
dedicated the temple of BAKSEI CHAMKRONG to JAYAVAR-
MAN III, Indravarman, and his father.

As with his predecessors, RAJENDRAVARMAN's (r.
944-968 C.E.) state temple of PRE RUP was designed to
honor the king and his ancestors in the context of the
god Siva. The largest and centrally placed brick sanctuary
housed Rajendrabhadresvara, the royal lingam, a stone
phallus and object of veneration. The four subsidiary
towers -were dedicated first to Isvara Rajendravarmesvara,
representing the king; Rajendravesvarupa, in favor of the
Brahman Vishvarupa, a distant ancestor of the king; the
king's aunt Jayadevi; and his predecessor Harshavarman.
Worship of the dead king, according to GEORGES CCEDES,
■was ensured once his soul entered the stone image in his
temple mausoleum, thus permitting contact with the
ancestors of the dynasty.

Thus the temple of ANGKOR WAT should be seen as
the preserve of the immortal sovereign SURYAVARMAN II
(1113-50 C.E.) merged with Vishnu. The construction of
temples and shrines dedicated to ancestor worship
reached its zenith during the reign of JAYAVARMAN VII
(1181-1219 C.E.). The BAYON was his own temple mau-
soleum, but he also constructed entire temple complexes
for the worship of his father, mother, and one of his sons.
These also housed subsidiary shrines dedicated to the
ancestors of members of his court.

INDIA

Reconstructing the history of kingship in India and its
link with the sacred world is necessarily based on the
content of the Vedas. It appears that in the early Vedic
tradition, rulers were required to take the advice of a
tribal council. Indeed, some tribes had no sovereign at
all. However, with the rise of settled agriculture and
expansion of settlement sizes, as shown in the later
Vedas, kings emerged not by council choice but through
military prowess, and their ascent incorporated rituals,
such as the horse sacrifice, that invoked cosmic signifi-
cance. This period saw the rise of the janapadas, small
states, in the Ganga Valley. The rise of the MAURYAN
EMPIRE took place at a time when BUDDHISM was estab-
lished. The emperor ASOKA, who succeeded in about 268
B.C.E., enthusiastically adopted Buddhism and had many
stupas constructed to cover the relics of the Buddha and
his early followers. The old Indian royal rituals, however,
■were revived under the great Gupta king SAMUDRAGUPTA
(335—380 C.E.). These included the horse sacrifice (ash-
vamedha) . It is significant that one of his coins issued at
the time bore the legend "the great king of kings, an
invincible hero, is going to conquer the heavens." His
descendants, in recalling this renewal of cosmic and
magic aspects of kingship, followed the precept in his
Allahabad inscription. In it, Samudragupta announced
his ascent to the role of chakravartin, or supreme
monarch. He was described as a god, dwelling on earth.
During the reign of KUMARGUPTA (415-455 C.E.), the
available texts refer more to donations and land grants
being made to Buddhist and Hindu temples than to mon-
uments dedicated to divine ancestors.

CENTRAL ASIA

The veneration of ancestors played a prominent part of
the ritual life among the states that flourished along the
ancient Silk Road. A mural from the Sogdian center of
AFRASIAB, for example, dating to the reign of King
Varkhuman in about 660 C.E., shows the sovereign in a
procession to visit a shrine dedicated to his ancestors. At
the KUSHAN site of KHALCHAYAN, dating to the mid-first
century C.E., a famous columned hall has been inter-
preted as a shrine dedicated to the deified royal ancestors.
The site of SURKH KOTAL incorporated a temple within the
fortress, dating to the reign of King KANISHKA (r. 100-126
C.E.). It, too, was dedicated to the Kushan ancestors. This
king, according to the RABATAK inscription, also founded
other shrines for the same purpose.

JAPAN

Appreciation of ancestors has been identified as early as
the middle YAYOI phase of Japanese culture, ■where ceme-
teries were patterned on the basis of an individual's
descent. This has been described as the beginning of a
divine ancestorship that developed into full and powerful

14 Andi

expression with the construction of the kofun burial
mounds. The honored place of the ancestors in the early
states of Japan is seen particularly clearly in the energy
expended on their mausolea. Thus the burial mound of
fifth-century ruler NINTOKU is the largest recorded in
Japan, with a total length of nearly 500 meters (1,650 ft.)-
The energy expended in such structures emphasizes the
social importance of the dead ruler as a divine being, who
even in death mediated and fostered the well-being of the
living community, and when the NIHONGI -was completed
early in the eighth-century C.E., it portrayed the tenno,
that is, the sovereign of the NARA STATE, as having a divine
ancestry. The text covers the historic period of Japan,
going back to the founding period of mythical ancestors.

Andi (94-125 C.E.) Although Andi means "peaceful em-
peror," the sixth emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty of
China did not enjoy a peaceful reign.

A grandson of Emperor ZHANGDI, he was only 12 on his
accession in 106 C.E. During his reign the XIONGNU
nomadic horsemen on the northwestern frontier were
active, raiding DUNHUANG and creating unrest and distur-
bances among the Chinese client states along the SILK
ROAD, such as SHAN-SHAN. To counter this peril, Chinese
troops and administrators -were sent to the threatened
areas. Continuing problems that resulted from floods and
droughts -were alleviated by providing central granaries in
the affected regions, among other measures.

Angkor Angkor is the modern name given to a com-
plex of cities, Hindu and Buddhist temples, and reser-
voirs located north of the GREAT LAKE (Tonle Sap) in
northwest Cambodia. Cambodian kings had these struc-
tures erected during a period of several centuries, begin-
ning in the eighth century C.E. and ending -with the
kingdom's collapse in the 15th century. The ANGKOR WAT
temple is the largest religious monument known, but it is
only one of the elaborate architectural works undertaken
here. Relief sculptures and inscriptions on the buildings
offer valuable information about religious practices and
daily life.

Angkor was first encountered by Europeans in the
16th century, when Portuguese missionaries visited and
described a gigantic, abandoned stone city, encroached on
by the jungle. Their accounts were recorded by DIOGO DO
COUTO (c. 1543-1616) and archived in Lisbon.

The Great Lake is one of the world's most productive
sources of freshwater fish. During the wet season the
Tonle Sap River, which connects the lake with the
Mekong River, reverses its flow and backs up, greatly
expanding the lake's area. In the dry season the river
drains the lake, and rice can be gro-wn in the wetlands left
as the lake level falls. The lake margins are a particularly
favorable place for settlement by rice farmers and fishers,
and the region of Angkor is further attractive because of

the perennial rivers that cross the flat floodplain from
their source in the KULEN HILLS to the north.

EARLIEST OCCUPATION

There is a long history of settlement in this area, which
began at least as early as the Iron Age (500 B. C.E. -200
C.E.), for evidence of prehistoric occupation of this
period has been found under the temple of BAKSEI
CHAMKRONG. The earliest historic occupation probably
took place near the WESTERN BARAY. Several temples lie in
that area, including AK YUM, Prei Kmeng, and Phnom
Rung.

LATER CONSTRUCTIONS

The second major complex lies to the southeast of Angkor
and is kno-wn as HARIHARALAYA, or the Roluos Group. It
includes a series of temples to the south of the
INDRATATAKA, a BARAY, or reservoir, of unprecedented size
(3,800 by 800 meters[12,540 by 2,640 ft]). It is known
from much later inscriptions that JAYAVARMAN II, the
founder of the kingdom of Angkor, lived here during his
declining years until his death in about 835 C.E. Most of
the Roluos Group of buildings, however, were constructed
during the reign of INDRAVARMAN I (877-889 C.E.). The
royal center of this king incorporated two major temples,
known as PREAH KO and the BAKONG. The water of the
Roluos River was diverted to fill the Indratataka and was
then reticulated to service the extensive moats surround-
ing the temples, as well as presumably the royal palace.
Preah Ko is a recent name meaning "sacred ox," after the
statues of the bull Nandi, SIVA's sacred mount, which
guard the entrance. This temple complex is surrounded
by a 50-meter (65-foot)-wide moat west of the Srah
Andaung Preng, a basin 100 meters (330 ft.) square.

The open area between the moat and the wall of the
second enclosure has not been investigated by archaeolo-
gists; it is thought that a rectangular platform on a north-
south axis in the western precinct might -well be the
foundations for the royal palace. Access to the second
court is effected through a laterite and sandstone
gopura — an entrance pavilion incorporating a gateway.
The area within is dominated by a platform bearing six
shrines. The three towers of the front row were dedicated
to Indravarman's maternal grandfather and father, the
central tower dedicated to Jayavarman II. The three sanc-
tuaries in the second row acknowledged the principal
consorts of each lord. Each shrine would have contained
an image of the ancestor.

While Preah Ko might have been the chapel royal,
the adjacent Bakong is far larger and of different con-
struction and design. It may have begun as a laterite
structure in the reign of JAYAVARMAN III (834-877 C.E.)
but was completed under Indravarman I. The first inno-
vation is the sheer scale of the conception: The central
pyramid rises in five stages within a double-moated
enclosure 800 meters square. Eight small sanctuaries

Angkor 15

placed around the base of the pyramid probably acknowl-
edged male and female ancestors of Indravarman. Still
awesome today, it -would have been a potent symbol of
royal po-wer and sacred ancestry.

With the death of Indravarman in 889 C.E. his son,
YASHOVARMAN I (Protege of Glory), completed the north-
ern dike of the Indratataka and had the Lolei temple con-
structed on an island in the middle of the reservoir.
However, he abandoned Hariharalaya in favor of a new
capital centered on a low sandstone hill known as the
BAKHENG. This center, known as YASHODHARAPURA, the
city of Yashovarman, lies at the heart of the complex now
known as Angkor. The Bakheng temple stands in the cen-
ter of the new city. It was itself ringed by a moat 650 by
436 meters in extent, traversed by four gopuras. Access to
the summit temple is by steep stairs, but the top of the hill
has been partially leveled so that the six terraces of the
sanctuary rise from the plateau as on a crown. There are
numerous brick chapels at the base of the pyramid and on
the terraces. The topmost tier incorporates a quincunx of
temples, the largest in the center and the others at each
corner. The extent of the city of Yashovarman has not
been defined, although for many years a canal system to
the southwest of the Bakheng was thought to be the outer
moat of his massive city. This feature, however, has now
been shown to be much later than his reign.

Yashovarman was responsible for the creation of the
massive YASHODHARATATAKA, or Eastern Baray, the dikes of
which are 7.5 by 1.8 meters (25 by 29 ft.) in extent.
Inscriptions erected at each corner record the construc-
tion of this reservoir fed by the Siem Reap River, which,
■when full, would have contained more than 50 million
cubic meters (1.75 billion ft.^) of vi'ater. He also had at
least four monasteries constructed south of his new reser-
voir, as well as temples on hills surrounding the capital.

After a brief interlude when King JAYAVARMAN IV
established his capital at Koh Ker to the northeast of
Angkor, his successor and older brother. King RAJEN-
DRAVARMAN, returned to the old center and had two major
state temples constructed. One is now known as Pre Rup;
the other, the EASTERN MEBON, was built on an island in
the center of the Yashodharatataka. The former honored
the king and his ancestors in the context of the god Siva.
Its five major tovi'ers rise on two laterite tiers. The largest
and centrally placed brick sanctuary housed Rajendrab-
hadresvara, the royal lingam. The architect Kavindrari-
mathana designed the Eastern Mebon. Its central tower
held a lingam named Rajendresvara, and the four sub-
sidiary temples on the uppermost platform housed images
of the king's forebears. Rajendravarman was succeeded by
his 10-year-old son, JAYAVARMAN V. He continued to reign
at Angkor, and his state temple, then kno-wn as Hemas-
ringagiri, or "the mountain -with the golden summits,"
■was built to represent MOUNT MERU, the home of the gods.
It is located just vilest of the Yashodharatataka.

Jayavarman V's reign was followed by a period of
civil vi'ar that left the state in serious disarray. The victori-
ous king, SURYAVARMAN I, established his court at Angkor,
with the focal point of his capital the temple known as
the PHIMEANAKAS. It comprises a single shrine, sur-
rounded by narrow roofed galleries on top of three tiers
of laterite of descending size. The royal palace would
have been built of perishable materials and can be traced
only through the excavation of its foundations. These
buildings were located within a high laterite wall with
five gopuras ascribed to this reign, enclosing a precinct
600 by 250 meters in extent. Today a great plaza lies to
the east of this walled precinct. On its eastern side lie the
southern and northern khleangs, long sandstone build-
ings of unknown function. The southern group belong to
the reign of Suryavarman I.

Suryavarman also underlined his authority by begin-
ning the construction of the Western Baray, the largest
reservoir at Angkor, which today retains a considerable
body of water. This reservoir was unusual, in that the
area within the dykes -was excavated, whereas the cus-
tomary method of construction entailed simply the rais-
ing of earth dykes above the land surface. The Western
Mebon temple in the center of the haray -was built in the
style of Suryavarman's successor, Udayadityavarman.

It was under the succeeding dynasty of Mahidhara-
pura, from about 1080 C.E., that Angkor reached its pre-
sent layout. Angkor Wat, the largest religious monument
known, was constructed by SURYAVARMAN II (1113-50).
Devoted to Vishnu, the temple still houses a large stone
statue to this god, -which was probably originally housed
in the central lotus tower. Angkor Wat incorporates one of
the finest and longest reliefs in the world, and the scenes
do much to illuminate the religious and court life of
Angkor during the 12th century. One scene, for example,
shows the king in council; another reveals the Angkorian
army on the march, while a third shows graphic scenes of
heaven and hell. Very high-status princesses are seen
being borne on palanquins. Within the walls of reliefs, the
temple rises to incorporate five to-wers, representing the
five peaks of Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods.

Despite its size and fame, there are still controversies
about Angkor Wat. Portuguese visitors of the 16th cen-
tury described an inscription that may \vell have been the
temple's founding document, but this has not been seen
or recorded since. Whether the entire complex was
sacred and had restricted access, or -whether people
resided within the area demarcated by an outer -wall and
moat, is unknown, as is the function of the temple.
GEORGES CCEDES has argued that it was a temple and a
mausoleum for the king, -whose ashes would have been
interred under the central shrine. More recently Eleanor
Mannika has taken an exhaustive series of measurements
and has argued in favor of a deep astrological significance
on the basis of the dimensions of key features.

i6 Angkor

A second king of the MAHIDHARAPURA DYNASTY,
JAYAVARMAN VII (1181-1219), was responsible for the con-
struction of ANGKOR THOM, the rectangular walled city
that today dominates Angkor. This moated and walled
city centers on the BAYON, an extraordinary edifice embel-
lished with gigantic stone heads thought to represent the
king as a Buddha. He also ordered the construction of the
Northern Baray, or reservoir, and the central island tem-
ple of NEAK PEAN, formerly known as Rajasri. According
to contemporary inscriptions, visitors to this temple
would wash away their sins in the water that gushed from
four fountains in the form of human and animal heads.
Foundation inscriptions also describe ho-w Jayavarman
VII founded and endowed two vast temple complexes, TA
PROHM to his mother and PREAH KHAN to his father. Each
temple also incorporated shrines dedicated to ancestors
of the aristocracy.

After the death of Jayavarman VII, building activity
slowed. By the 14th and 15th centuries, the Angkor state
was under stress from the encroaching Thais and was
abandoned in the middle years of the latter century. While
much of the site was then overgrown by the jungle,
Angkor Wat was never completely abandoned. It, as
indeed do all other temples, retains its sanctity to this day.

ARTISTIC AND WRITTEN EVIDENCE

The physical remains of the civilization of Angkor, and
the corpus of inscriptions, make it clear that there must
have been many specialists engaged in regular activities.
The construction of a temple even of relatively humble
proportions would have called on architects and a wide
range of laborers, from those who manufactured bricks to
those who cut and shaped stone, as well as carpenters,
plasterers to create the frescoes, painters, and gilders.
Surviving bronzes, for example, for palanquin fittings and
statues, indicate the presence of metal workshops, and
the ornate jewelry seen on the elite in the reliefs reflects
not only lapidaries but workers of gold, silver, and pre-
cious stones.

Inscriptions are one of the best sources for artisans
during the pre-Angkorian period, because they list the
skills of workers assigned to the temple foundations and
often their numbers as well. These provide insight into
tasks such as basket maker, and the mention of products
reveals specialist output: gold, bronze, a copper gong,
diadem, umbrellas, many types of pottery vessels, and
varieties of woven cloth. Agricultural laborers were men-
tioned most frequently. An inscription from Lonvek
records the assignment of 17 dancers or singers; 23 or 24
record keepers; 19 leaf sewers; 37 artisans, including a
potter, 11 weavers, and 15 spinners; and 59 rice-field
workers, of whom 46 were female.

An inscription from the reign of Udayadityavarman I
shows the king confirming temple rights to indentured
laborers, but reserving the right to call on them for assis-

tance if necessary. His successor or rival, Jayaviravarman,
is said to have allowed the people of Divapura to enter as
artisans in the corporation of goldsmiths. King Suryavar-
man I ordered royal artisans of the first, second, third,
and fourth categories and the people of the district of
Sadya to construct for Divakarapandita and his descen-
dants a tower, a baray, and a surrounding wall.

There are also scenes depicting the activities of arti-
sans on the reliefs of the Bayon. Some are seen in the act
of constructing a monument or preparing a banquet for
the elite. The war vessels of the Angkorian navy must
have been built by shipwrights. In 1296 the Chinese visi-
tor ZHOU DAGUAN described the fine fabric worn by the
elite, which must have been woven by specialists, as well
as a range of artifacts that include parasols of oiled taffeta
and palanquins with golden shafts. Archaeological exca-
vations have also uncovered ceramic kilns at Tani, east of
Angkor, and at Ban Kruat in Thailand, on a scale compat-
ible with specialized production.

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY

The civilization of Angkor was dependent on rice sur-
pluses for its survival. Rice domestication commenced in
the Chang River (Yangtze River Valley) in China by at
least the eighth millennium B.C.E. and reached Southeast
Asia during the late third millennium. B.C.E. , probably as
a result of population growth and the spread of farming
communities. Rice is widely consumed with fish, because
fish are well adapted to life in low wetlands and in rice
fields themselves. But domestic cattle and pigs were also
closely associated with early rice farmers.

The techniques for growing rice during the period of
early states in Southeast Asia are not known in depth.
There is controversy, for example, over the development
of irrigation based on the vast reservoirs found at Angkor.
The adoption of animal traction and the plow greatly
increases production, but again, firm evidence for the
beginning of plowing is not known. A relief of plowing is
found on the walls of BOROBUDUR on Java, dated to the
ninth century C.E., but no evidence exists for the king-
dom of Angkor.

At Angkor small square field systems on the same
orientation as the temples indicate that the bunded or
banked system of rain-fed agriculture was employed. This
system is particularly productive when the rice plants are
transplanted in a pattern that allows sufficient space for
each to flourish. When the Chinese diplomat Zhou
Daguan visited Angkor in 1296—97, he observed that
there were four crops of rice per annum. This has fueled
speculation that irrigation fed by the reservoirs there
allowed the cultivation of multiple crops. However, he
did not mention irrigation, and no canals or other sys-
tems of reticulation have survived.

Moreover, there are four methods of cultivating rice
without irrigation. Rice is a marsh plant, reliant for nutri-

Angkor Borel 17

ents more on the water that percolates past its stems than
on the soil in which it is rooted. Therefore, the expansion
of rice cultivation requires the creation of conditions that
resemble a natural s\vamp or the exploitation of natural
wetlands. Today much of lowland Southeast Asia has
been converted into rice fields by the simple expedient of
building low earth banks, to retain rainwater where it
falls. The water can then be reticulated through the fields
by opening or closing intervening conduits. Where flood-
waters rise along lake margins or river floodplains, float-
ing rice can flourish. The rice does not in fact float, but it
has the capacity to grow at the same pace as the rising
flood. If water rises faster than the plant's capacity to
grovi?, the rice dies. Such rice, which proliferates along the
margins of the Great Lake in Cambodia, can be harvested
by beating the rice grains into a boat. It is also possible to
grow rice by retaining floodwater behind linear bunds,
called tanuh in Cambodia, and planting out the rice dur-
ing the early months of the dry season. Another method
is the swidden or slash-and-burn system, which involves
clearing forest by burning and growing rice in the result-
ing fields. This system relies heavily on rainwater and
cannot be sustained for more than one or two seasons
because of soil exhaustion.

The inscriptions of this period do not mention irri-
gation or disputes surrounding access to irrigation water.
On the other hand, they contain numerous allusions to
the organization of labor and the provision of rice sur-
pluses for the temples and the court center. The nobility
owned estates that centered on the ancestral temple,
under the authority of the king. They commanded an
agricultural workforce for whom escape was severely
punished. These workers were required to contribute
their labor for two weeks out of four to produce the vital
surpluses of rice and other agricultural products. The
other two weeks were probably spent working for them-
selves. Agricultural surpluses were used to maintain the
upper classes and the clergy and figuratively to feed the
gods. Inscriptions of Jayavarman VII specify the number
of villages and people assigned to the maintenance of his
temple foundations. These, and the list of goods required
by the king's hospitals, give some idea of the range of
agricultural products then grown. In addition to rice, the
list includes honey, wax, fruit, camphor, coriander, pep-
per, mustard, cardamom, molasses, cumin, pine resin,
and ginger.

See also BUDDHISM.

Bairat Bairat is a Buddhist site in India dating to the
period of ASOKA, king of the MAURYA EMPIRE (268-235
B.C.E.), although its origins lie in the preceding Iron Age.
It is located north of Jaipur in Rajasthan and is renowned
for the presence of two of Asoka's inscriptions, one of
which is directed to the Buddhist communion, or sangha.
The inscriptions were discovered in 1837 and 1871. One
is in poor condition and cannot be fully translated. The
other, located at Bijak Pahar (Inscription Hill), near the
town of Bairat, records the devotion of Asoka to BUD-
DHISM. It also mentions seven specific Buddhist texts and
is thought to be the only Asokan inscription that specifi-
cally names the Buddha.

The architectural remains include a monastery and a
sanctuary, both excavated during the 1930s. A stupa
stood in the center of the sanctuary, surrounded by an
inner circle of wooden columns and an outer circle of
brick, to form an ambulatory. There was almost certainly
once an Asokan column at the site, for fragments of pol-
ished Chunar sandstone have been found. The ruins of
the monastery held a hoard of coins, showing that the
site was still occupied during the first century C.E.

Bakheng The Phnom Bakheng is a 60-meter (200-ft.)-
high hill visible for miles around, located in the center of
ANGKOR in Cambodia. It was a strategic fortress during
the period of the Khmer Rouge (1975—78), as it affords
distant views in every direction. King YASHOVARMAN I
chose it as the location for his state temple, known as the
Bakheng. It was consecrated only a year or two before the
king died in 910 C.E. The temple was reached after cross-
ing a moat and entrance pavilion, passing two stone lion
guards, and ascending a steep stone stairway. The temple
rose more than 14 meters (46 ft.) in height, incorporating
six levels. The first five each support 12 shrines, and the
uppermost platform has a central and four subsidiary

Balitung 33

shrines. These numbers have cosmological significance,
for when the 60 shrines are combined with a further 44
that ring the base of the pyramid and the four subsidiary
buildings on the top, the sum is 108, a figure of deep
symbolic meaning. Jean Filliozat has pointed out that
only 33 of these are visible when viewed from the center
of any side of the monument, the number of gods in
Indra's heaven. Dividing the 108 towers by 4 gives 27, the
phases of the lunar cycle. The 12 towers on each level
may represent the 12-year cycle of Jupiter. Paul Wheatley
has explored this symbolism: "The 12 year cycle of
Jupiter in multiples of five was used as a dating era from
early in the fifth century A.D. Thus, while in elevation,
the Bakheng was a plastic representation of MOUNT MERU,
the axis of the universe, the kingdom, and the capital; in
plan it constituted an astronomical calendar in stone,
depicting from each of the four cardinal directions the
positions and paths of the planets in the great Indian con-
ception of cyclic time."

Bakong In 881 C.E., King INDRAVARMAN consecrated his
state temple, now known as the Bakong, at HARIHAR-
ALAYA, southeast of ANGKOR in Cambodia. As the contem-
porary INDRATATAKA does, this monument represents a
quantum change in monumentality In the words of a
contemporary inscription: "In 881, the king, like a god,
dispenser of riches, has erected a lingam nained Indres-
vara, here." There are several novel features of this monu-
ment apart from its great size. The walls of the uppermost
platform retain damaged reliefs, which must once have
been of outstanding quality. One shows a battle between
gods and demons; another incorporates goddesses. There
are numerous subsidiary shrines between the two sur-
rounding moats, which were probably constructed by
high court officials. These moats are very large and had a
capacity of almost a million cubic meters of water. Steps
give access to the water of the innermost one. Four
avenues radiate out from the moated area on the cardinal
points of the compass, one of which links the temple
with the Indratataka reservoir 600 meters (1,980 ft.) to
the north.

The name Indresvara combines that of the king with
the god Siva, indicating a submergence of the king within
the deity into a single object of devotion. The text pro-
ceeds: "Here, in the court of Indravarman, causing joy to
those who behold it and unreserved wonder of the celes-
tial builder, he erected eight lingams, named by royal
practice after the eight elements of Siva: earth, wind, fire,
the Moon, Sun, water, ether and the sacrificer." The cen-
tral temple pyramid, faced with large sandstone blocks,
comprises five platforms, the uppermost rising 14 meters
(46 ft.) above ground level. The shrine, which formerly
housed the god Indresvara, has not survived, and a later
temple has taken its place. Eight small sanctuaries placed
uniformly around the base of the pyramid probably

acknowledged male and female ancestors of Indravar-
man, for the eastern set incorporates male figures on
exterior niches, but the western ones have females.

Baksei Chamkrong This temple at ANGKOR in Cam-
bodia was built during the reign of Harshavarman I (c.
910-922 C.E.) and dedicated to his parents. On his return
to rule at Angkor, RAJENDRAVARMAN (944-968 C.E.)
restored it and dedicated new statues there in 948. It lies
on the northern side of the Phnom BAKHENG and has four
tiers of laterite that support a brick temple. The founda-
tion inscription describes a golden image of Siva within.
B.-P. Groslier excavated an extensive area in front of the
temple during the 1960s and reported the presence of
prehistoric Iron Age occupation. This was confirmed in
2001, when a further excavation encountered first a brick
wall and associated floor thought to antedate the temple
foundation and the clay furnaces dating to the Iron Age
(c. 500 B.C.E.-400 C.E.).

Balakot Balakot is a small site of the INDUS VALLEY CIV-
ILIZATION, located on Sonmiani Bay in southern Baluchis-
tan, an area overlapping parts of eastern Iran and
southeast Pakistan. The site was a center for the produc-
tion of ceramic vessels and figurines and the manufac-
ture of shell jewelry. The cultural deposits, which rise to
a height of 10 meters (33 ft.), fall into two distinct peri-
ods. The basal layers represent a variant of the AMRI-NAL
early Harappan cultural phase (c. 3200-2600 B.C.E.).
They have yielded LAPIS LAZULI beads, evidence for cop-
per metallurgy, chert harvesting knives, and the bones of
cattle, sheep, and goat. Houses were constructed of mud
brick.

Radiocarbon dates suggest that the second major
phase, which belongs to the mature Indus civilization,
commenced about 2500 B.C.E. As in many other Indus
settlements, there were two sections. Of these, the west-
ern is the higher. Excavations in 1973-76 revealed house
construction in mud brick, with dv^rellings equipped with
drains of fired brick and, on at least one occasion, a bath-
room. Houses were laid out with streets running on a
grid pattern oriented to the cardinal points of the com-
pass. While it is likely that both the western and eastern
sections of the site were walled separately, the excava-
tions did not produce any evidence.

Typical Indus artifacts are spear- and arrowheads,
gaming pieces, and steatite SEALS bearing the impression
of a unicorn. The locally manufactured shell jewelry
made use of the local bivalve Meretrix. Balakot's coastal
location might well have given the inhabitants the oppor-
tunity to feed their shell ornaments into a wide-ranging
trade network.

Balitung (r. c. 901-910 C.E.) Balitung was king of cen-
tral Java, in Indonesia, where most of his 31 inscriptions

34 Baikh

have been found, but he also exercised authority over the
eastern part of the island.

He was entitled Sri Maharaja on his inscriptions. These
were largely concerned with taxation and the dedication
of surpluses to the maintenance of a temple foundation,
the provision of tax exemptions for villages or individu-
als, and the settlement of ownership disputes. In that they
mention the names of officials charged with carrying out
the king's wishes and the ceremonies or payments that
accompanied land settlements, they provide much inci-
dental information on social issues. Large stone inscrip-
tions of the reign of Balitung were set up as a permanent
statement, but portable copper inscriptions also recorded
his enactments. Since archaeology is virtually silent on
this period of Javanese history, these texts are an unparal-
leled source of information on the reign of this king.

Balkh Balkh is a settlement strategically placed north
of the Hindu Kush range and south of the Amu Dar'ya
River and was an important staging post on the ancient
SILK ROAD that linked Rome with India and China. It was
occupied by or under the control of most of the major
powers that successively controlled this region, including
the Sasanid dynasty, whose COINAGE was minted there
under the title Bahlo, their name for the city. There were
also periods of BACTRIAN GREEK, Mauryan, SAKA, and
KUSHAN occupation. When XUANZANG, the Chinese Bud-
dhist pilgrim, visited BACTRIA in the seventh century C.E.,
he found that Balkh, the capital, was occupied by a siz-
able population of Buddhist monks. There are many early
Buddhist foundations in the vicinity of the city, making
Balkh one of the most westerly points of Buddhist expan-
sion. One of these, the stupa known as Tope y-Rustam, is
probably the same monument described by Xuanzang as
Navasangharama.

See also BUDDHISM.

Balu Balu is a small site of the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZA-
TION, located west of the upper reaches of the Jamuna
River in India. It is thus one of the most easterly Harappan
sites. It covers an area of 200 by 80 meters (660 by 264
ft.), and excavations have revealed three phases of occupa-
tion that cover the sequence of the Early, Mature, and Late
Indus periods. The site was surrounded by a wall of mud
brick, within which the houses were laid along streets con-
forming to a grid pattern. The material culture recovered
includes typical artifacts of this civilization, including
steatite beads, ceramics, and copper implements.

Bamboo Annals The Zhushu Jinian {Bamboo Annals),
are a set of strips of bamboo recovered from the tomb of
King Xiang of Wei at Shanbiaozhen in China in 279 C.E.
Long segments cut from a straight stem of bamboo were
tied together with silk cords. Each strip contains 40
graphs of Chinese script, documents placed in the royal

tomb in 296 B.C.E. Such documents on BAMBOO SLIPS are a
rich source of historic information, but given the fact that
it is 1,700 years since this set was exhumed, and the orig-
inals are long since lost, questions have been raised as to
its authenticity. One method of testing this issue is to
seek incidents or events found in other sources. In the
case of the Bamboo Annals, this test has been passed with
the discovery of the inscribed text on the Xi Jia pan, a
bronze vessel cast in the middle of the WESTERN ZHOU
dynasty (late ninth century B.C.E.). Both it and the annals
describe in some detail the same military campaign
waged by Jifu against the Xianyun people in the fifth year
of the reign of King Xuan. The Ban gui, another bronze
vessel, was inscribed with a text describing an attack on
the eastern countries by the duke of Mao, v^^ho com-
manded by the Zhou king, included infantry, chariots,
and halberd men in his army. This campaign is also men-
tioned in the Bamboo Annals.

The annals may thus be added to the corpus of vital
historic documents describing the Shang and Zhou dynas-
ties. They include descriptions of court activities, royal
progresses, wars, obituaries of leading figures, and records
of harvests and of portents. One section in particular
describes the fall of the Shang dynasty at the hands of
KING WU of Zhou and recounts how the king survived this
major event in early Chinese history by only two years.

See also SHANG STATE.

bamboo slips Before the invention of paper in about
105 C.E. during the HAN DYNASTY, Chinese books were
written on long strips of bamboo, cut lengthwise from the
stem, polished, and then inscribed on the interior sur-
face. The slips were then strung together with silk cords
and could be rolled up for storage. A graph used to desig-
nate such books is found on the Shang ORACLE BONES.
The texts often contain information about important
events and everyday life. Those scribes in charge of the
bamboo archives were described as zuo ce; ce is the word
for the slips themselves. The word for ce is depicted as a
set of vertical strokes linked by two horizontal lines, the
former representing the bamboo and the latter the silk
cords. Most of the bamboo-slip archives were found in
southern China, where bamboo flourishes. Wood was
also used as a medium for record keeping.

EARLIEST EVIDENCE FOR BAMBOO SLIPS

Although no bamboo slips have been found that belong to
the WESTERN ZHOU DYNASTY, it is known that they existed.
A bronze jia, or vessel, from a hoard found at Zhuangbai,
dating to about 975 B.C.E., mentions a person named Zhe
and his title, zuoce, "maker of strips." He was a court
scribe. In 825 B.C.E. , the Song gui, an inscribed bronze
vessel, was cast to commemorate a court appointment
under King Xuan (r. 827-782 B.C.E.). The text describes in
detail the ceremonial investiture of Song to supervise

Bamiyan 33

warehouses, for which he was awarded a black embroi-
dered jacket and other choice gifts from the sovereign. It
then describes how he "suspended the strips from his
jacket in order to withdraw." It seems that a copy of the
document appointing him, written with a brush on the
bamboo slips, was presented to him during the audience.

The earliest kno-wn bamboo slips are from a tomb at
Leigudun in the state of Zeng and date to 433 B.C.E. This
tomb was that of the marquis of Zeng, and it was richly
furnished -with grave goods. The coffin was made of black
lacquered wood, colored with designs in gold and red.
Golden vessels were also found, together with a fine
golden ladle with holes to permit its use as a strainer. The
bamboo-slip inventory of the contents for this tomb runs
to 6,600 entries and includes a list of 43 chariots.

DISCOVERIES OF LATER SLIPS

Tombs of the CHU state are particularly abundant and
date to the WARRING STATES PERIOD (475-221 B.C.E.). The
Slips fall into three categories: historic texts, inventories
of tomb offerings, and ritual documents. A set of slips
from a tomb at Wanshan sets out prayers offered during
the occupant's illness and shows Dao Gu offering prayers
to the ancestors and sacrificing cattle and sheep. The
tomb of Fan Chi at Tianxingguan likewise contained a
record of the prayers offered and divinations made.
Where such records name ancestors or kings of an ill
man, they become important historic documents. The
tomb inventories are also fascinating documents, particu-
larly when a rich burial like Tomb 1 at MAWANGDUI, a
suburb of Changsha, is found to contain such records.
The records from Tomb 25 at the site of Yangtianhu near
Changsha is particularly detailed. It includes the names
of those who gave items to be buried with the deceased.

One of the most important discoveries of actual early
texts is from the tomb of Xi, an archivist who lived dur-
ing the reign of the first emperor of QIN, QIN SHIHUANGDI
(221-210 B.C.E. ). He was buried in Tomb 11 at Shuihudi
and was accompanied by about 1,200 slips bearing his-
toric texts that Xi might well have written himself. One
document records, similarly to a diary, the events that
took place, including references to the life of Xi between
306 and 217 B.C.E. It is fascinating to compare this his-
tory with the well known Shijing, written by SIMA QIAN a
century after the event. Sometimes Sima Qian's dates for
events were in error, while the Shuihudi text, known as
the Biannianji, describes events that pass without men-
tion in the Shijing. A second text found in the stomach
area of the deceased, known as the Yushu, sets out the
edicts issued by Teng. Teng was in charge of the Nanjun
commandery in what had been part of the southern state
of Chu. The text illuminates how the local people contin-
ued in their traditional ways despite the fact that they
had been defeated by the Qin 50 years previously.
Another set of slips from the tomb of Xi sets out the ele-
ments of the Qin legal system, including the rules gov-

erning the harmonization of the system of weights and
measures across the new empire.

A text known as the Fengzhenshi contains an extraor-
dinarily detailed account of the investigation of a robbery.
It details the size of the hole made in a wall to gain access
to someone's property, the type of tools used to make the
access hole, the shape of the footprints of the alleged rob-
ber, and the sort of shoes he must have been wearing.
These legal documents recall the earlier Chu texts from
Tomb 2 at BAOSHAN, dated to 316 B.C.E. The Baoshan slips
include reports on individual cases before the courts and
were sealed in the tomb of a prominent legal officer of the
Chu state. A second set from the same grave lists the
burial offerings. One chamber contained the food for the
deceased, another the objects used when traveling. A
third set of offerings was used in the actual mortuary rit-
uals, and the fourth lists the vehicles, including chariots,
that took part in the burial procession.

Tomb 4 at Shuihudi in Hubei province dates to the
late third century B.C.E. and yielded letters written home
from two soldiers, Heifu and Jing in 223 B.C.E. They
described a battle in which the Qin forces defeated rebels.
A huge find of more than 5,000 slips was recovered from
Tomb 1 at Yinqueshan, Shandong, in 1972. Dating to the
second century B.C.E., they contain the text of the Art of
War in 13 chapters, together with many other supple-
mentary documents on war and politics.

Further reading: Shaughnessy, E. L. "On the authen-
ticity of the Bamboo Annah,'' Harvard Journal of Asiatic
Studies 46 (1986): 149-180.

Bamiyan Bamiyan, located northwest of Kabul,
Afghanistan, is best known for the two colossal statues of
the Buddha carved into the mountainside. One of these,
standing 53 meters in height, was, until its destruction
with dynamite by the Taliban rulers of Afghanistan in
2001, the tallest stone statue in the world. The site occu-
pied a strategic position on the trade routes that were part
of the ancient SILK ROAD. To the east were BEGRAM, HADDA,
and TAXILA. A route over the Hindu Kush mountains to
the north linked Bamiyan with BALKH and TERMEZ. XUAN-
ZANG, the Chinese scholar and pilgrim, described it in the
seventh century as the seat of 10 monasteries and several
thousand monks. In 727 the Korean Buddhist monk Hei-
cho traveled to Bamiyan and, while not mentioning the
giant Buddhas, noted the presence of temples and monks
and the royal patronage of his faith. The presence of a
powerful army produced peaceful conditions, and agricul-
ture, particularly viticulture, flourished. The main prod-
ucts were sheep, horses, cotton, and wool.

THE STATUES

The complex dates between the third and seventh cen-
turies C.E. Xuanzang said of one of the massive statues;
"At the northeast of the royal city, there is at the corner of

36 Banavasi

the mountains a rock statue of Buddha standing, 50
meters (165 ft.) high, a dazzhng gold color and adorned
with brilliant gems." The second colossus stood 38
meters (125 ft.) high. Both massive statues probably date
to the end of the third century C.E.

Benjamin Rowland has described the methods
w^hereby these statues were created. The body and the
head were carved roughly from the living rock. The details
were then formed with a mixture of mud and finely cut
straw, before being covered in a lime plaster and gilded or
painted. The larger of the t-wo had finely detailed folds in
the Buddha's robe, created by attaching ropes to -wooden
dowels cut into the rock before being covered in the man-
ner described. Xuanzang also described a copper statue of
the Buddha more than 30 meters (99 ft.) high, made of
separate pieces welded together, as well as another stone
image of the Buddha, more than 330 meters (1,089 ft.)
long, lying down in the pose of attaining nirvana.

THE CAVES

Although Bamiyan is best known for these two statues,
the sheer face of the cliffs into which these statues were
cut also bears many cave chambers. Monks would have
occupied some of these, but the -walls of some are covered
in paintings depicting events in the life of the Buddha.
There are three groups of caves that extend over a dis-
tance of 1,300 meters (4,290 ft.). In the eastern group,
294 caves are kno-wn, as -well as the lesser of the two
giant Buddha statues. Fifty caves occupy the central
group, and there are a further 323 caverns in the western
series.

The caves have suffered severely over the years
through neglect or wilful destruction, no more so than
under the Taliban regime. One chamber only 35 meters
(116 ft.) from the giant Buddha statue contained written
records on birch bark scrolls, and the study of some oth-
ers has allo-wed an assessment of the interior plans and
nature of the -wall paintings. Cave 24, for example, in the
eastern group and probably of relatively early date, was
embellished with outstanding paintings of the Buddha
and BODHISATTVAS. The ceiling was painted with a bod-
hisattva associated with 14 images of the Buddha in a
variety of seated positions. Stylistically, these paintings
belong to the third or fourth century C.E.

In 1930 a French team found a cave that had been
concealed by sand. Protected from the elements, the
paintings and architecture within survived and were
recorded at the time, although little now remains. It is
not a large chamber, measuring only about four by four
meters, and is unusual in having in the center the foun-
dations of a stupa. Excavations uncovered the remains of
stucco statues, including a male head. The holes in the
cave walls for attaching such images revealed that there
had formerly been as many as 12 statues. The painted
decoration on part of the ceiling as found in 1930
depicted the seated Buddha with a halo. Four further

Buddhas flank him, while a woman offers him the gift of
a string of pearls. Rows of small Buddha images, repre-
senting the thousand Buddhas, were painted below the
main images, while rows of lotus petals were placed
above. Similar multiple images of the Buddha remained
in another cave that overlooked the giant eastern Buddha
statue.

This treasury of Buddhist art and sculpture,
described as the most magnificent in the world, has been
devastated. Yet, in 1959, Arnold Toynbee wrote that, if
"you look out across the valley in the moonlight, there is
peace in the shadowy shapes of the Buddhas and caves."

Further reading: Klimburg, D. E. The Kingdom of
Bamiyan. Naples/Rome: Buddhist Art and Culture of the
Hindukush, 1987; Klimburg-Salter, D. E. The Silk Route
and the Diam^ond Path. Los Angeles: UCLA Art Council,
1982; Ogura, R. Bamiyan Art and Archaeological
Researches on the Buddhist Cave Temples in Afghanistan:
1970-1978. Chicago: Art Media Resources, 2001.

Banavasi Banavasi is a substantial urban complex
located in Karnataka province, southern India. The mas-
sive walls -were built of brick and were associated with a
moat. There are many mounds containing the brick foun-
dations of Buddhist structures of the SATAVAHANA period
within the walled area, but clearly the site was already
prominent during the MAURYA EMPIRE, because it was
mentioned in an Asokan edict. The Chinese pilgrim
XUANZANG visited the site in the seventh century and
noted the presence of a Buddhist community there.
See also ASOKA; BUDDHISM.

Banawali Banawali is a site of the INDUS VALLEY CIVI-
LIZATION, located only 200 meters (660 ft.) from the
course of the now dried out SARASVATI RIVER in the Pun-
jab. Excavations were undertaken during 1974-77, and
three phases of occupation have been identified. The first
dates between about 2500 and 2300 B.C.E. and includes
the remains of the pre-Indus culture also found at
KALIBANGAN in Rajastan and RAKHIGARHI, northwest of
Delhi, and ascribed to the SOTHI-SISWAL phase of the Early
Harappan culture. Excavations have revealed important
aspects of this phase. A shard, for example, -was decorated
with the image of a canopied cart on spoked wheels, and
the remains of a house of mud brick containing a series
of hearths was uncovered. Ornaments were made of gold
and faience, and several terra-cotta animal figurines have
been found. Houses, complete with ovens, were made of
mud brick and fired brick.

During the second phase, that of the classic Indus
civilization (c. 2300-1700 B.C.E.), the site had two walled
enclosures with a linking gateway. The layout is most
unusual. While the outer walls and the moat form a
roughly square enclosure covering an area of about 16
hectares (40 acres), the inner citadel is ellipsoid in plan.

Bangarh 37

jutting out into the town from the southern wall. It is
possible that this citadel housed the elite, -while artisans,
merchants, and other members of the community at large
occupied the lower town. Excavations in the citadel have
uncovered the foundations of mud-brick houses and a
grid street system.

The lower town was divided into city blocks by roads
and lanes. Their layout approximately followed a grid
plan, although some crossroads, such as the one in front
of the main northern entrance to the citadel, had roads
entering it from the southeast and southwest. Intimate
details of life in this area are afforded by the excavation of
the mud-brick houses, which include living and storage
rooms, kitchens with the remains of scorched barley, and
latrines. Floors were of beaten earth, and ceramic con-
tainers were found on them, while the roofs were made of
wooden beams and reeds. Rooms were grouped around
courtyards and were clearly occupied by people of sub-
stance. One house complex might have belonged to a
wealthy merchant, for it yielded many SEALS and weights.
Another belonged to a jeweler; the excavated material
included beads of LAPIS LAZULI, gold, and etched car-
nelian; tiny weights; and a stone that had been used for
testing the purity of gold, streaked with the samples
taken. Some weights were minute; the lightest was only
0.072 gram (0.0025 oz.). One structure might well have
been a temple, for it had an unusual apsidal shape not
found in dwellings.

The subsistence base of the inhabitants included
intensive agriculture, seen in the recovery of a terra-cotta
model of a plowshare. The elements of a typical Indus
material culture — including weights, seals, and sealings; a
wide range of beads in agate, lapiz lazuli, carnelian,
FAIENCE, and ivory; and bronze razors, chisels, fishhooks,
bangles, and rings — all point to occupation during the
heyday of this civilization.

Phase III represents the final occupation of Banawali
and dates from about 1700-1500 B.C.E. Town planning
was no longer in evidence. Houses were now made of
clay. There was a different ceramic tradition, but the local
manufacture of jewelry continued.

Ban Biao (Pan Piao) (3-54 c.e.) Ban Biao was a histo-
rian who began the compilation of the Hanshu (History of
the Former Han).

In this endeavor, he followed in the footsteps of SIMA
QIAN, author of the SHfJJ iRecords of the Grand Historian),
which covered Chinese history from the earliest begin-
nings to 100 B.C.E. Ban Biao continued the history of
China to cover the second century of the HAN DYNASTY
(see hanshu). His work was continued by his son, BAN
GU, and ultimately by Ban Gu's daughters.

Ban Don Ta Phet This Iron Age cemetery is located in
Kanchanaburi province of Central Thailand and has been

excavated by Ian Glover. The burials are Hanshu, particu-
larly notable for the evidence they provide for early con-
tact between India and the people of Southeast Asia. The
inhabitants of the region had easy access to the Three
Pagodas Pass, which links the Chao Phraya Valley with
the Bay of Bengal and India. The radiocarbon dates were
determined on the basis of rice temper recovered from
pottery vessels. The calibrated age ranges of four samples
dated at Oxford, England, are 640-160 B.C.E., 670-190
B.C.E., 470-80 B.C.E., and 500-100 B.C.E. Taken in con-
junction, these provide a mean range of 390-360 B.C.E.,
although the material culture of the site would be better
placed two centuries later. Exotic imports were employed
in mortuary rituals. The dead were interred in a cemetery
bounded by a ditch, in association with carnelian, agate,
glass, and bronze artifacts, all of which could have origi-
nated in India. The etched carnelian and agate beads, for
example, fall within the Indian repertoire, while the ori-
gin of the glass may also be traced to South Asia. The
bronze bowls have a very high tin content and were
turned to an exceeding thinness on a lathe. They were
decorated with scenes of women and animals. Some of
the latter are exotic to Southeast Asia, but there was
already a tradition of casting such high-tin bronzes in
India. About 30 of the bronze bowls were finished on the
inside base with a knob or boss in the center of a series of
concentric circles. This feature of Indian stone and
ceramic vessels provides supporting evidence for their
Indian origin. The recovery of a carnelian lion v^rith one
of the burials not only points without doubt to an Indian
origin, but it also provides evidence for the spread of
BUDDHISM, for the Buddha was often depicted during that
period in the form of a lion.

There is also much evidence for the advancement of
local technological skills, particularly in the area of iron
forging, for many billhooks and spears, bent or destroyed
as part of the mortuary ritual, were incorporated with the
dead. The recovery of a double-headed animal ornament
in jade also points to exchange with the Iron Age com-
munities of coastal Vietnam, the center for the produc-
tion of these unusual ornaments. Local bronze casting
also reached specialist levels, with, for example, the pro-
duction of a bronze birdcage under a fighting cockerel.

Bangarh Bangarh is a walled city site located north of
the lower Ganges (Ganga) River in India, occupied from
prehistoric times to the medieval period. Formerly
known as Banapura, it was dominated by a large citadel
covering an area of about 25 hectares (63 acres). Excava-
tions in 1938-41 showed that the site was founded dur-
ing the period of NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED WARE, dated
by the presence of this style of pottery and both cast and
punch-marked coins. The second occupation phase is
dated to the later first millennium B.C.E. on the basis of
sealings inscribed with early BRAHMI characters. The third

38 Ban Gu

phase includes house remains belonging to the GUPTA
EMPIRE period, but the site continued in occupation until
the medieval period.

Ban Gu (Pan Ku) (32-92 c.e.) Ban Gu was a prominent
member of a distinguished family of historians in China.
His father, BAN BIAO, commenced compiling the HANSHU
(History of the Former Han), a work Ban Gu continued.
This text was the model for all future dynastic histories of
China. The History of the Later Han Dynasty recorded the
details of his life and work, which was devoted exclu-
sively to historic scholarship. Resolved to continue his
father's ambitious project, he worked on it privately.
However, an informant sent a letter to the emperor
Mingdi describing Ban Gu's activities, and he was arrested
and incarcerated for possible sedition, while his library
was impounded. His brother probably saved his life by
explaining to the emperor Ban Gu's intention of writing a
history of the dynasty and showing Mingdi his writings.
The emperor was pleased with this information and
appointed Ban Gu an official historian. Twenty years of
research, in which he called on oral traditions and avail-
able documents, resulted in a history that spanned the
reigns of Gaozu to the WANG MANG interregnum that
ended in 23 C.E.

Ban Gu was also the author of the BOHU JONG (Dis-
courses in the White Tiger Hall). In this text, he recorded
the conversations between the emperor Zhang (r. 75—88
C.E.) and his advisers on the Confucian issue of the rela-
tionship between the ruler and his subjects. After the
preference for LEGALISM under the QIN dynasty and for
TAOISM among the earlier Han rulers, Confucianism had a
renaissance during and after the reign of Han WUDI. In
this work. Ban Gu described the vital Confucian ethic of
complementarity, whereby the ruler heeds the advice of
his ministers for the good of the people.

Ban Khu Muang This dvaravati civilization city is
located in central Thailand, less than two kilometers from
the Chao Phraya River. It covers an area of 650 by 750
meters (2,145 by 2,475 ft.) and incorporates many brick
temple foundations. There are four phases of occupation
contained within a cultural accumulation four meters (13
ft.) deep. The earliest, dated between 300 and 550 C.E.,
includes ceramics similar to those of the EUNAN state of
the Mekong Delta. The second and third phases belong to
the Dvaravati civilization and include iron spears and
knives. Clay anvils indicate a local ceramic industry, for
they are used to shape pottery vessels. The final phase
includes late Angkorian ceramics.

Ban Non Wat Ban Non Wat is a large, moated archae-
ological site in the upper Mun Valley of northeast Thai-
land. Excavations in 2002 revealed a rare sequence of

prehistoric occupation that began in the Neolithic period,
approximately 2100 B.C.E., continued into the Bronze Age
(1500-500 B.C.E.), and ended with Iron Age (500
B. C.E. -200 C.E.) and Historic period (200-800 C.E.) occu-
pation. The Neolithic and Bronze Age burials revealed an
unexpected level of wealth and sophistication, adding
much to the understanding of the developing complexity
of prehistoric societies in the region that ultimately saw
the genesis of the states of CHENLA and ANGKOR.

Banteay Chmar Banteay Chmar is a huge temple
mausoleum in a remote corner of northwestern Cambo-
dia, constructed during the reign of JAYAVARMAN VII
(1181-1219) to honor his son, Srindrakumaraputra,
who had led a military expedition against the Chams.
Four of his generals are also commemorated. The sanc-
tuary to Arjunadeva lies to the southeast, that for Dha-
radevapuradeva to the northeast, Devadeva to the
southwest, and Varddhanadeva to the northwest. Arjuna
and Dharadevapura had died defending King Yashovar-
man II (1160-66) and were given high posthumous
titles. The other two warriors died defending the king
during a battle against the Chams and were likewise
awarded a hero's funeral and high posthumous titles.
The site includes first a moat and an outer walled enclo-
sure 2.2 by 2.4 kilometers (about 1 sq. mi.) in extent,
which is punctured on the eastern side by a reservoir 1.7
kilometers long and one kilometer wide. A stream fed
this BARAY at its northeast corner, and water flowed into
the moat at the southwest corner. The overflow then
filled the moat, which runs around the outer walls. The
island temple in the middle of the reservoir incorporates
an oval bank in which lie four basins, two of which are
curved and the other two circular. The reservoir extends
by about 200 meters (660 ft.) into the eastern sector of
the complex, in the center of which lies the actual tem-
ple. This extensive area between the outer wall and the
moat and walls of the inner temple, which covers 448
hectares (1,120 acres), now includes only eight single-
chambered shrines but presumably would have housed a
considerable population.

The walls of the inner sanctum are covered in reliefs
revealing scenes of battles between the Khmer and
Chams. There is a naval battle and the army on the march,
with leaders riding on their elephants. On one occasion,
the troops stop in front of a large forest filled with mon-
keys. The baggage train with elephants and military sup-
plies is depicted, and the reliefs also include APSARAS
(celestial water nymphs) and an extraordinary range of
gods with multiple heads and arms. A maze of shrines and
passageways clusters around the central temple. An
inscription states that it held an image of Srindrakumara-
putra, represented as Lokesvara with the name
Srindradeva. It is entirely possible that this was his funer-
ary mausoleum.

Banteay Pre! Nokor 39

Banteay Chmar was a temple mausoleum constructed In northwest Cambodia by Jayavarman VII of Angkor for his crown prince
and for military heroes. As with other monuments of this king, who ruled from 1 1 81 until 1219, it was embellished with huge
heads carved in sandstone. (Charles Higham)

The site has been severely damaged by looting: In
1998 a section of wall bearing reliefs was removed by the
Cambodian army for sale on the Bangkok antiquities
market.

See also CHAM CIVILIZATION.

Banteay Choeu ANGKOR in Cambodia includes many
separate foundations constructed over a period of more
than six centuries. Banteay Choeu may well be the oldest.
From the air, a faint square enclosure is visible at the
western end of the WESTERN BARAY. The water of the
baray, or reservoir, has inundated part of the site. To the
north, there is a linear dyke, which incorporates a right
angle, again partially submerged. The square enclosure
incorporates the temple of AK YUM, a very early example
of a shrine raised on platforms of descending size. A fur-
ther temple at Prei Kmeng lies toward the western limits
of the enclosure. It is known that JAYAVARMAN II, founder
of the kingdom of Angkor, was active in this area in the
late eighth century C.E., and Banteay Choeu might have
been one of his successive centers. The dykes to the
north would then have constitute the haray to retain

water flowing from the KULEN HILLS. Excavations are nec-
essary to obtain datable material in testing this possibility,
because it has also been suggested that the site represents
an unfinished baray rather than an early city.

Banteay Prei Nokor Banteay Prei Nokor is a huge pre-
Angokorian city located in eastern Cambodia, 40 kilome-
ters (34 mi.) from the Mekong River. It is enclosed by an
earthen wall 2.5 kilometers square (1 sq. mi.) and an outer
moat. In 1936 Victor Goloubew took a series of aerial pho-
tographs of this site, in which the temples, bank, and moat
stand out clearly. He also noted five reservoirs on the same
axis, all outside the moat, and a road linking the site with
the Mekong River to the west. Today the enclosure remains
demarcated by its encircling walls and moat, while the
brick shrines of Preah Theat Thom and Preah Theat Toch
dominate its center. This site is particularly significant
because it is thought to have been the capital of JAYAVAR-
MAN II (c. 770-834 C.E.) before this king and his followers
began their odyssey to the northwest that led to the foun-
dation of ANGKOR. Excavations are required to pursue the
possibility that it dates to this period.

40 Banteay Samre

Banteay Samre The temple of Banteay Samre is often
overlooked because of the attention given to its near con-
temporary, ANGKOR WAT. It is located just east of the EAST-
ERN BARAY, at ANGKOR, but the absence of any inscriptions
means that little is known of its origin and history. The
temple is surrounded by two walled enclosures, each sev-
ered by entrance pavilions on the four sides. These
gopuras, as well as the central shrine, were richly orna-
mented with reliefs. As at Angkor Wat, the scenes are
largely drawn from Indian epics, including the CHURNING
OF THE OCEAN OF MILK and the birth of Brahma.

Banteay Srei Located 25 kilometers (15 mi.) north-
east of ANGKOR, Banteay Srei (Citadel of the Women) is
one of the most famous of all Angkorian temples because
of its completeness and the beauty of its decoration. The
temple, formerly known as Ishvarapura, was discovered
only in 1914 and is particularly notable for its miniature

The delightful miniature temple of Banteay Srei (Citadel of the
Women) lies just northeast of Angkor. It contains some of the
most exquisite bas-reliefs to come from that civilization.
(Charles Higham)

dimensions and overall decoration. The latter attracted
the French writer Andre Malraux, who set out for
Angkor in 1923 and stole some of the carvings. Fortu-
nately, these were later retrieved, and Malraux was
briefly imprisoned.

The foundation stela reveals that the temple was con-
secrated on 22 April 967 by Yajnyavaraha, a grandson of
King Harshavarman I. He served as one of Rajendravar-
man's ministers and then became teacher and adviser to
JAYAVARMAN V. Yajnyavaraha was a scholar and philan-
thropist who helped those suffering from illness, injustice,
or poverty. He founded many monasteries containing stat-
ues of Siva and had reservoirs constructed as acts of merit.
The king honored him with parasols of peacock feathers,
golden palanquins, and other insignia of high esteem and
status. A text from Banteay Srei, dating to early in the reign
of JAYAVARMAN V, sets out some of the donations for func-
tionaries of the temple, which include white rice, and
established the boundaries of the estates designated to
endow it. Only small parts of the original foundation sur-
vive; the temple was added to and embellished for at least
three centuries after its foundation. The early brick struc-
ture can be seen today only in a wall and gopura (entrance
pavilion). Vittorio Roveda has provided a detailed analysis
of the temple's history, based largely on the decorative ele-
ments of the exterior walls. He has suggested that the east-
ern gopura was constructed in 1011 C.E. in the reign of
SURYAVARMAN I. This ruler also added a pillared causeway
and the western gopura later in his reign. Further construc-
tion followed in the 12th century, but the temple did not
reach its final form, following Roveda's analysis, until the
rule of King Shrindravarman in the 14th century.

Baoshan The Baoshan cemetery, located near the CHU
capital of Ying in Hubei province, China, contained five
tombs of which Tomb 2 is best known through excava-
tion. It contained the remains of Shao Tuo, a senior legal
official of the Chu court, who died in 316 B.C.E. The
tomb's size and contents illustrate clearly the wealth of
the Chu kingdom during the period of WARRING STATES. It
measures approximately 34 by 32 meters (112 by 105 ft.)
and was covered by a mound 5.8 meters high and 54
meters in diameter. The central shaft descends through
14 steps of declining size to the wooden mortuary struc-
ture at the base. This set of chambers, measuring 6.3
meters square and 3.1 meters in height, was placed over a
pit containing the remains of a goat and cloth woven
from silk and wool. The entire wooden building was sur-
rounded by a layer of clay to protect it from dampness
and the ingress of air. Within lay the tomb chamber itself
and four further rooms for placing mortuary offerings.
Along with exquisite lacquerwork and bronze vessels, the
most important assemblage was a series of texts written
on BAMBOO SLIPS, found together with Shao Tuo's writing
brush and knife for erasing errors.

baray 41

Shao Tuo died at about 35 to 40 years of age and was
interred in the innermost of three coffins, together with a
■wide range of personal goods deemed necessary for the
afterlife. These included his vessels for entertaining, char-
iot equipment, and even a folding bed and bamboo con-
tainers that \vould have accompanied him on his travels
around the kingdom. His inner coffin was decorated in
lacquer, with images of birds and dragons depicted in
vibrant colors embellished with gilt and silver. The qual-
ity of the grave offerings was very high: A footed and lid-
ded vessel known as a zun, for example, was inlaid with
exquisite gold and silver work. One of a pair, it contained
chicken bones. A lacquer box only five centimeters (2
in.) high was decorated with a narrative scene of great
detail. It shows a bureaucrat in the course of a tour, trav-
eling by chariot. A second lidded lacquer box contained
nested cups, a plate, and condiment jars. It might have
been taken by Shao Tuo on his travels. The master was
accompanied in his grave by figurines of his retainers
more than a meter high; these individuals were fully
dressed and wore wigs of real hair.

The texts were largely concerned with legal issues,
although there was also an inventory of the tomb con-
tents, as well as divinations. One set even included con-
tinuing references to his declining health. The inventory
of tomb contents, found in four separate parts of the
complex, included one set describing the contents of a
chamber as the goods needed v^rhen traveling, suggesting
that the person depicted on the lacquer box riding in a
chariot might be Shao Tuo himself. Other lists described
the vessels employed during the funerary rituals and oth-
ers used to make sacrifices at the ancestral temple.

The texts are an invaluable source of information on
the Chu legal system. The importance of maintaining a
register of all adults is stated, and the penalties imposed
on the local leaders who omitted young men from the list
noted. There is also a poignant reference to a prisoner
who escaped from the silk warehouse belonging to the
royal consort and attempted to stab himself when appre-
hended in the street. Another text reported on a dispute
over the right to use certain workers that involved Ruo, a
legal official, and Jin, an aristocrat. It referred to the king
of Chu as "the shining Sun."

Baphuon The Baphuon is the temple mausoleum of
King UDAYADITYAVARMAN II of ANGKOR (1050-66 C.E.) in
Cambodia. It lies near the center of the later city of
ANGKOR THOM, just to the south of the walls of the royal
palace precinct, and was described by ZHOU DAGUAN in
1297 as the tower of copper. An inscription states that
the Baphuon was constructed to represent the mountain
home of the gods and that it originally incorporated a
golden tower containing a lingam of gold. The principal
shrine has not survived, and it is possible that the stones
were reemployed at a later date to construct a large image

of the Buddha. The Baphuon has suffered severely from
deterioration and collapse but is currently under recon-
struction. It is a very large and impressive temple mau-
soleum, measuring 425 by 125 meters (1,402 by 412 ft.)
in extent, while the central temple pyramid is 125 by 100
meters at the base. It has three levels and is particularly
notable for the number of reliefs adorning some of the
walls. These depict scenes from Hindu sagas, goddesses,
and various animals set in individual panels.

Bara Bara is a prehistoric mound located near the head-
waters of the Jamuna River in northern India, dating to
between 2000 and 1600 B.C.E. Its significance lies in the
pottery remains, which recall decorative motifs found on
the wares from the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION, such as
fish, trees, and nets. The remains of mud-brick structures
have also been found here. Slightly later than the Indus
civilization, it might represent a rural counterpart to the
major cities just after the latter went into decline.

Barabar Barabar, on the Phalgu River in northern
India, is the location of Buddhist cave temples cut into
the granite rock face. One dates from the reign of ASOKA,
the Sudama cave temple, was cut in 252 B.C.E., and the
Gopi cave belongs to the reign of Asoka's grandson,
Dasaratha. The decoration on the cave walls and
entrances, particularly on the LOMAS RISHI cave, imitated
wooden forms.

baray Baray is a Sanskrit word for "reservoir" or
"pond." Barays are a recurrent feature of the landscape of
the kingdom of ANGKOR, in Cambodia, invariably taking a
rectangular form. In certain cases their date is provided by
foundation inscriptions, but most of the smaller examples
are undated. They usually are components of urban and
ceremonial centers, and many have an island temple in
the middle; they may have symbolized the oceans encir-
cling MOUNT MERU. Water-control measures in a region
with a long dry season have prehistoric origins in South-
east Asia. At NOEN U-LOKE banks were constructed during
Southeast Asia's Iron Age (200 B.C.E. -300 C.E.) to regulate
and restrain the flow of water past the site. The EUNAN
maritime state (150-550 C.E.) was responsible for the con-
struction of an extensive canal network, and at its main
center of ANGKOR BOREI the EASTERN BARAY covers an area
of about 200 by 100 meters (660 by 330 ft.). There is a
large haray at ISHANAPURA, a major center of the CHENLA
period (550-802 C.E.), and the pre-Angkorian inscriptions
record numerous reservoirs and water-control measures.
BANTEAY CHOEU, west of Angkor, is located just south of a
linear dyke on an east-west axis, linked with a further
dyke at right angles. The rest of this feature is now sub-
merged below the water of the later WESTERN BARAY, but in
all likelihood the baray was used in water control.

42 Bari-Kot

BARAYS OF THE ANGKOR REGION

The geography of the Angkor region sees three rivers
flowing south into the GREAT LAKE from the KULEN HILLS.
The Banteay Choeu baray would have retained the water
provided by the Puok River. To the east of Angkor,
Indravarman had the INDRATATAKA constructed to harness
the water of the Roluos River. The foundation stela of the
temple of Preah Ko in 879 C.E. records, "Five days hence,
I will begin digging." A second inscription states, "He
made the Indratataka, mirror of his glory, like the ocean."
Now dry but clearly visible from the air, this haray was of
unprecedented size: 3,800 meters (12,540 ft.) in length
and 800 meters (2,640 ft.) wide. The northern dyke and
the Lolei temple in the middle of the reservoir were com-
pleted by Indravarman's successor, YASHOVARMAN I. It was
the latter king who ordered the construction of the
YASHODHARATATAKA, or Eastern Baray, at Angkor, the
dykes of which are 7.5 by 1.8 meters (25 by 6 ft.) in
extent. Inscriptions erected at each corner record this
remarkable achievement, which when full would have
contained more than 50 million cubic meters (1.75 bil-
lion cu. ft.) of water. The haray was fed by a canal linking
it with the Siem Reap River, and it emptied into a canal
that filled the moats of the city to the west.

The Western Baray is even larger. It was probably
commenced by SURYAVARMAN I (1002-50) and completed
by Udayadityavarman II (1050-66). Recent investigations
reveal that it was probably built in stages, each marked by
a north-south dyke as work progressed. Unlike the East-
ern Baray, it was excavated below the then-ground sur-
face. There is no doubt that the baray was completed at
this period, for the western Mebon temple in its center
has the architectural style of Udayadityavarman II's reign.
This artificial island incorporates a square enclosure
demarcated by a wall containing niches and decorative
reliefs. Within there is a water basin with a causeway giv-
ing access to a central structure. Part of a huge bronze
statue of Vishnu was found here. The Northern Baray is
the last of the major reservoirs at Angkor. It was built by
JAYAVARMAN VII (1181-1219). Known as the JAYATATAKA, it
is 3.7 by 0.9 kilometer (2 by .5 mi.) in extent. The island
in the middle housed Rajasri (neak PEAn), one of the
most exquisite of all Angkorian temples.

BARAYS IN OTHER REGIONS

Beyond Angkor barays are a feature of other major cen-
ters in Cambodia. At BANTEAY CHMAR, the outer wall of
the temple complex is punctured by a reservoir 1.7 kilo-
meters long and one kilometer wide. A stream fed this
haray at its northeast corner, and water then flowed into
the moat at the southwest corner, where ETIENNE
AYMONIER noted the paved outlet that controlled the
vi'ater level. The overflow then filled the moat running
around the outer walls. There is an island temple in the
center of the baray. The Rahal baray at Lingapura (koh
KEr) measures 1,200 by 560 meters and was partially

hewn from the rock substrate. The gigantic center of
Preah Khan of Kompong Svay incorporated a baray 2.8
kilometers long and 750 meters wide. Where a temple
complex was located on a hill, there is usually a baray at
the base, as at PHNOM CHISOR, while harays are also found
at regional centers, such as PHNOM WAN, MUANG TAM, and
PHIMAI in Thailand.

FUNCTION OF BARAYS

Despite the numerous harays and some associated inscrip-
tions, their function remains controversial. B.-P Groslier
has been prominent in arguing in favor of their central
role in irrigating rice fields. He has referred to Angkor as a
hydraulic city, reliant on IRRIGATION to provide sufficient
rice to feed a large urban population. In his view, each
successive haray auginented the irrigated area, and sedi-
mentation of the system contributed to the collapse of the
civilization. This view has been seriously challenged by
Philip Stott, W J. Van Liere, and Robert Acker, who argue
against an irrigation theory on several grounds. The
deeply incised Siem Reap River would have restricted the
reticulation of water by canals. On the other hand,
Christophe Pettier has recently found evidence for a canal
distribution system below the harays at Angkor, as well as
former rice plots. However, the land available would have
been insufficient to add significantly to the quantity of
rice needed to sustain the population. It is also the case
that no inscription relating to the barays mentions irriga-
tion, nor are there any records in available texts for dis-
putes over the distribution of water. Yet in Sri Lanka,
where barays were used for irrigation, there are numerous
such records. Each haray has a temple at the center, and
there are many allusions to the religious and curative
properties of the sacred water that flowed from the Kulen
Hills. Again, ZHOU DAGUAN did not mention canals or the
use of haray water for rice cultivation.

Until the possible evidence for irrigation is dated,
therefore, it is considered likely that the harays fulfilled a
ritual and domestic purpose. The state temple mausolea
were built to represent the home of the gods on MOUNT
MERU, while the harays and moats might represent the
encircling oceans. This interpretation is supported by the
clear relationship between the Neak Pean temple in the
center of the Jayatataka and LAKE ANAVATAPTA. The latter is
the sacred lake of BUDDHISM, located in the Himalayan
region, and mythical source of four great rivers, the
Ganges (Ganga), Indus, Syr Dar'ya, and Tarim. The water
from each left the lake through the mouth of a horse, an
ox, an elephant, and a lion. This is matched at Neak Pean,
and contemporary inscriptions state that pilgrims could
cross the haray to this temple to wash away their sins.

Bari-Kot Bari-Kot is one of a number of important
Buddhist sites that has yielded examples of the Gandha-
ran tradition of art in the Swat Valley of Afghanistan. It is
probably the center named Bazira by the second-century

bas-reliefs 43

C.E. Greek historian Arrian, and its former name was
Vajirasthana. The site is dominated by two large stupas
and the remains of a vihara (meeting hall) and was inten-
sively occupied during the KUSHAN period (78-200 C.E.),
to judge by the many finds dating to that period identi-
fied here. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim XUANZANG vis-
ited the site in the seventh century C.E. and described a
statue of the BODHISATTVA AVALOKITESVARA.
See also GANDHARA.

Barygaza See broach.

bas-reliefs

INDIA

The embellishment of temples with relief carvings has a
long ancestry in India, and the practice was adopted in
Southeast Asia and along the SILK ROAD probably as a
result of acquaintance with Indian architectural tech-
niques. The Great Stupa at SANCHI, for example, is sur-
rounded by a railing incorporating four toranas decorated
with narrative reliefs depicting events in the life of the
Buddha. Some scenes also provide illuminating depic-
tions of war. In southern India, the Virupaksha temple at
PATTADAKAL includes bas-reliefs showing scenes from the
Ramayana and Mahahharata on the columns. One of
these depicts the Churning of the Ocean of Milk to
obtain the elixir of immortality. This theme came to be
particularly popular at Angkor in Cambodia. To the
northwest, KHAM ZARGAR in Afghanistan is a Buddhist
monastery that has yielded reliefs on schist showing the
worship of a bodhisattva and the nirvana.

SOUTHEAST ASIA

SELAGIRI HILL in western Mynmar (Burma) is a location of
the greatest sanctity because, according to legend, the
Buddha and some followers flew there from India. Inves-
tigations on Selagiri Hill have identified a brick stupa,
associated with a series of magnificent sandstone reliefs
dating to the sixth and seventh centuries C.E. depicting
events in the life of the Buddha.

The decoration on the exterior of temple buildings —
scenes from Hindu epics and myths, representations of
court and everyday life, and historical events — has a long
ancestry in Cambodia. During the period of CHENLA king-
doms (550-800 C.E.), brick temples incorporated stone
lintels. The surface of the brick was carved to portray
palaces and their aristocratic occupants, while the stone
lintels were heavily decorated with mythical scenes and
occasionally with depictions of court activities. At Hari-
haralaya, brick temples were decorated with images of
deities as well as rich floral ornamentation rendered in
painted stucco. The expansion of relief decoration, how-
ever, occurred with the increasing use of sandstone as a
construction material. Panels bearing scenes from Hindu
epics are a particular feature of the BAPHUON temple pyra-

mid, the mausoleum of UDAYADITYAVARMAN II (1050-66).
The temples of ANGKOR WAT and the BAYON stand out on
the basis of the quality and quantity of their relief decora-
tion. The former contains the longest continuous bas-
relief known, incorporating scenes from the court of King
SURYAVARMAN II (r. 1113-50) and the king's army marching
to battle. Individual commanders are named in small adja-
cent inscriptions. Battle scenes follow, including a dra-
matic rendition of the BATTLE OE KURUKSHETRA. There are
also scenes of heaven and hell and an outstanding account
of the mythical CHURNING OE THE OCEAN OE MILK to pro-
duce AMRITA, the elixir of immortality. A 17th-century
Japanese visitor to ANGKOR drew a plan of the temple and
observed that some of the reliefs retained traces of gilding.

The walls enclosing the Bayon temple pyramid of
JAYAVARMAN VII (r 1181-1219) are covered in reliefs.
These, while of lesser quality than those of Angkor Wat,
are particularly important in showing scenes drawn from
everyday life, as well as battles against the Chams. The
former include servants preparing food for a feast and
serving it to the elite in an al fresco setting, a woman in
labor attended by midwives, two men playing chess,
hunting with a bow and arrow, net fishing, and construc-
tion work. One panel shows the interior of a Chinese
merchant's house, another a Chinese trading junk. The
battle scenes on land and water show vicious hand-to-
hand fighting between the Khmer and the Chams. These
must reflect the recent wars in which Jayavarman VII
freed the kingdom from Cham invaders. Further scenes
of warfare are seen at the remote temple of BANTEAY
CHMAR, which was built by Jayavarman VII in honor of
his son and four military heroes. BANTEAY SREI is one of
the most attractive and famously decorated temples. Built
in a hard pink sandstone, this miniature building incor-
porates many 14th-century reliefs that take inspiration
from Hindu epics.

The same situation also applies to the CHAM CIVILIZA-
TION centers in Vietnam. At DONG DUONG, there are many
fine reliefs showing the Buddha, while dancers and
ascetics are depicted on some of the reliefs from MY SON.

CHINA

Temple reliefs in stone have not survived to the same
extent in China, but there is a large corpus of HAN
DYNASTY carvings that portray aspects of everyday life. An
example from Sichuan shows a group of people harvest-
ing with hand-held sickles, another shows people husk-
ing rice with a tilt hammer. There are also clay reliefs that
portray other industrial activities. One shows a winery,
another depicts salt production in Sichuan. A market
scene reveals a special walled precinct, within which peo-
ple run their stalls, and purchasers, who have entered by
the East Market Gate, as seen in an explanatory inscrip-
tion, come to buy.

The region of Nanyang in southwestern Henan
Province is noted for the stone slabs decorated in low

44 Ba state

relief or incised with images that illustrate the enjoyment
of the table, of music, and entertainment. Several such
mortuary reliefs contain scenes of men bull baiting.

sources of salt, and as the Chu pressed westward, so the
Ba impinged on the Shu.
See also ANGKOR.

Ba State The Chang (Yangtze) River Valley south to
Lingnan in China followed a separate course of cultural
development from that documented in the central plains
of the Huang (Yellow) River, and it was long relegated to
a supporting role in Chinese history. Recent excavations,
however, have begun to redress this imbalance. Thus the
origins of rice cultivation have now been sourced in the
central Chang lakelands by 6500 B.C.E., followed by an
expansionary series of movements up- and downstream
and through the passes to the south. Early urbanization is
seen at the site of Chengtoushan (4000 B.C.E.), and at
SANXINGDUI (1400-1100 B.C.E.); bronzes even more
remarkable than their contemporaries at ANYANG have
been recovered from sacrificial pits. The southern popu-
lations in question almost certainly did not speak Chi-
nese, but they were in exchange contact with the Shang
and Zhou states, for it is recorded that turtleshells for
divination, as well as kingfisher plumage, cowries, and
rhinoceros horn, were southern products much in
demand in the northern states. There was also a
widespread bronze form not found in the central plains,
the large ceremonial bronze drum.

The Ba were one of these southern groups. They
occupied the land above the Chang gorges in eastern
Sichuan and spread north into Shaanxi and south into
Guizhou. To the east, they bordered the rising power of
the Chu state, while their western margins coincided
with the people of SHU. The earliest documentary refer-
ence to the Ba appeared in the Shang ORACLE BONES
(1200-1045 B.C.E.), where the king divined on the
prospects of a military campaign against the Ba. The Ba
seem to have participated in the BATTLE OF MUYE that
saw the Zhou triumph over Shang in 1045 B.C.E., and
thereafter typically they are recorded as donating exotic
birds to the Zhou king. The Ba survived in a competi-
tive climate through military prowess. They cast fine
bronze weapons, many decorated with their chosen
icon, the tiger. Their large drums were also often sur-
mounted by a cast tiger. These items were embellished
with a rudimentary pictographic script unlike that of
the central plains, which employed images of animals,
plants, and humans, as well as some abstract signs.
Some symbols incorporate a boat with masts and oars
and a human arm linked with a flower bud. No long
texts have survived, and it has so far proved impossible
to decipher them.

The Ba people entered into military alliances with
their powerful Chu neighbors during the Spring and
Autumn period (770-476 B.C.E.), but there was always a
tension fueled by the growing power and ambition of the
Chu. In particular, the Ba people controlled important

Ba system The establishment of the WESTERN ZHOU
DYNASTY of China in 1045 B.C.E. introduced a feudal sys-
tem of government, in which members of the royal lin-
eage were granted landed fiefs on the borders of the new
kingdom to put alien land under central control. This
was a logical and sensible step but had the inevitable con-
sequence that over time the blood ties slackened with
increasing genealogical distance between center and
periphery. By the end of the Western Zhou, the kings who
ruled with divine approval under the MANDATE OF HEAVEN
had become so weakened relative to the powerful feudal
states that they relied on the latter's support for their sur-
vival. While retaining the aura of sovereignty, they
became increasingly enfeebled. Under these conditions,
political leadership was taken by the rulers of the then BA
STATE.

Ba means "the senior one." Zhuan Gong of the state
of ZHENG was foremost in protecting Ping, the first ruler
of the EASTERN ZHOU DYNASTY, after the king's move east
at the end of the Western Zhou dynasty. However, his
loyalty was tested under King Huan of Zhou (r. 719-697
B.C.E. ), and in a confrontation the king was injured. This
was an important turning point in the role of the king,
and increasingly it was Zhuan Gong who took the politi-
cal initiative, up to his death in 701 B.C.E. He could thus
be seen as the first Ba. With the death of Zhuan Gong,
the state of QI assumed dominance. Qi had several geo-
graphic advantages in terms of trade, the supply of salt,
and potential for expansion to north and east. Moreover,
under the lord Huan Gong, deep-seated changes were
made to state administration whereby the splintering
effect of a feudal system was replaced by the establish-
ment of 15 divisions for administrative purposes, divided
into groups of five. One division was controlled by the
overlord, the others by senior ministers. The artisans and
fieldworkers were also divided into groups under central
administration. This had the effect of greatly increasing
efficiency and the power of central mobilization of forces.
Qi thus became the Ba state, with Huan Gong effectively
the leader of a coalition. Resulting conflicts with the ris-
ing power of CHU to the south were successfully con-
cluded, and the institution of interstate conferences led to
the production of a uniform policy on such matters as the
control of IRRIGATION water and the organization of trade.
One provision was the exclusion of women from political
affairs.

Huan Gong of Qi died in 643 B.C.E., and the renewed
specter of feudalism was seen in a power struggle
between his sons. The Qi state thus declined in povi'er
and influence, and under Jin Wen Gong (r. 636-628
B.C.E.), JIN became the Ba state. However, by the sixth

Bayon 45

century B.C.E., Jin, Chu, Qi, and QIN had all assumed
dominance in their own territories, and the role of the Ba
ceased to have relevance. As these states increased their
power and ambition, the seeds were sown for the period

of WARRING STATES.

battle scenes Commemorations of great battles fill
many pages of the Indian epics the RAMAYANA and MAHAB-
HARATA. These were subsequently depicted on the walls of
both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Thus at SANCHI,
located in Madhya Pradesh, India, the railings incorporat-
ing four toranas are decorated with narrative reliefs of
scenes of war in which one can observe battle elephants,
the walls of a besieged city, and groups of archers. Horse
cavalry and chariots join the siege, while the defenders
reply from battlements with bows and arrows or repel
attackers with clubs. The Indian battles were also a fer-
tile field of inspiration for the builders of ANGKOR in
Cambodia. The reUefs on the BAPHUON of UDAYADITYAVAR-
MAN II include images of war chariots, but full depictions
of an army and battles are first seen on the bas-reliefs of
ANGKOR WAT. The procession of the army of SURYAVARMAN
II includes the king and his great generals, each riding a
war elephant. Virendradhipativarman is seen surrounded
by nine parasols. Ahead of him in the column is Jayayud-
dhavarman, with eight parasols. His troops wear distinc-
tive helmets with deer-head images. Rajasinghavarman
has 13 parasols and two banners, but pride of place goes
to the king. He has 15 parasols, five fans, six fly whisks,
four banners, and — in front of his elephant — a standard
of Vishnu riding Garuda. Even his elephant wears a
splendid jeweled headdress. His presence is signaled by
the sacred fire being carried aloft and by an orchestra of
trumpets, conches, drums, and a gong. There are ranks of
foot soldiers and cavalry, including both Khmer and vas-
sal troops.

The same men and arms are then portrayed in the
mythical Battle of KURUKSHETRA. Leaders are seen on
their elephants or on horse-drawn chariots. Most wield
bows and arrows. The infantry carry spears and protect
themselves with circular shields. Fighting appears to have
included hand-to-hand encounters involving whole for-
mations. The later reliefs of the BAYON and BANTEAY
CHMAR include ballistae, for launching a large spear,
mounted on elephants. These appear to have been an
innovation in warfare that reached Angkor after the com-
pletion of Angkor Wat. The deadly effect of massed
arrows was countered by the use of panels designed to
withstand their impact without impeding the vision of
the Khmer archers. There are also graphic scenes of naval
encounters between the forces of JAYAVARMAN VII and the
Chams (see CHAM CIVILIZATION), in which warships are
used as floating fortresses from which soldiers fight with
spears and bows and arrows. At the Bayon, two vessels
seem to be in the act of ramming each other.

Battle scenes are also found in KUSHAN contexts. At
KHALCHAYAN in Uzbekistan, a palace reception chamber
dating from the first century B.C.E to the first century C.E.
was decorated with images of warriors on horseback wear-
ing leather armor and wielding bows and arrows as well as
with deities that seem to have been modeled on Hellenistic
gods, such as Athena and Apollo. PANJIKENT, a Sogdian
center located about 40 (24 mi.) kilometers east of Samar-
qand, was occupied from the fifth to the eighth centuries
C.E. The rich inhabitants decorated their homes with
painted scenes, including archers on horseback leaping
over dead bodies, a theme taken from their epic stories.

In China, battle scenes take the form of tomb models
and decoration on ceramics or bronzes. The most notable
battle scene comes from the funerary pits of the first
emperor, QIN SHIHUANGDI (259-210 B.C.E. ). These show
units of archers, chariots drawn by four horses, and sup-
porting infantry. Guards at the flanks and rear are located
to withstand a surprise attack. Another pit contains a
detachment of infantry, chariots, and cavalry. The archers
carry crossbows. A third pit incorporated the command
center, with some soldiers forming an honor guard.

A second set of terra-cotta soldiers comes from a pit
associated with the tomb of a king of CHU at Shizishan in
Jiangsu Province. Infantry and cavalry are represented,
but there are no chariots. The same mix of foot soldiers
and cavalry is seen at a rich WESTERN HAN royal tomb at
Yangjiawan in Shaanxi. The 1,800 infantry soldiers and
580 members of the cavalry are modeled at about 50 per-
cent full size, and each individual is completed in full
battle dress. A third-century B.C.E. tomb of the WEI state
known as the Jizhong tomb contains a remarkable battle
scene cast into a bronze vessel. It shows archers, spear-
men, and soldiers wielding halberds and fighting from
boats. One can also see a wheeled scaling ladder to
assault defensive walls. One panel depicts decapitated
soldiers.

Bayon The Bayon temple, originally known as Mad-
hyadri, lies in the center of the city of ANGKOR THOM in
Cambodia. It began as the state temple mausoleum of
King JAYAVARMAN VII (r. 1 181-1219) and incorporates
large carved stone heads, considered representations of
the king as a BODHISATTVA, an enlightened one, on the
temple towers. The outer walls are decorated with a
series of reliefs, which provide an unparalleled glimpse of
life during the reign of Jayavarman VII.

The Bayon was expanded and modified in at least
three phases. Thus the central shrine began with a cruci-
form plan but was later given its unusual circular layout
with an addition of radiating shrines. The outer enclosing
wall contains eight cruciform entrance towers and is cov-
ered in reliefs depicting battle scenes and daily activities.
The third level contains towers embellished with huge
stone heads. The original dedicatory statue of the Buddha

46 be

The reliefs carved on the walls of the Bayon temple at Angkor reflect life there in the early 1 3th century. Here we see an oxcart
like those still used in the area, followed by a family with their livestock. (Charles Higham)

that would have been housed in the main gilded chapel
was smashed as a later religious reaction and cast into the
deep shaft that underlies the central shrine. The scenes
on the outer walls include battles on land and water,
feasting, life in a rich person's house, hunting, playing of
games, selling in the market, cooking, and building a
palace. Military victories dominate many of the reliefs.

It is hard today to conceive of the monument's original
brilliance; it was described by ZHOU DAGUAN as the golden
tower. A contemporary inscription states that Queen
Jayarajadevi, wife of Jayavarman VII, donated 100 banners
of Chinese fabric to the god of Madhyadri, the Bayon.

be A be was a group of craft specialists who, during the
period of the YAMATO state in Japan, paid goods and ser-
vices to the court. Such specialists are recorded in the
Japanese history known as the NIHONGI, for example, as
being established after the arrival of Korean artisans with
specialist skills in weaving, writing, and the manufacture
of iron goods. It is possible that the idea of tribute-
producing specialists originated in Korea as well. An
inscription on an iron sword from Okadayama employed

the term he, suggesting that such occupational groups
were established by the fifth century C.E. Their impor-
tance grew in tandem with the new demands placed on
society as the Yamato state increased in complexity, high-
lighting the need for specialists in IRRIGATION technology,
weaving, and the provision of iron items required in war
and agriculture.

Bedsa Bedsa, located in the western Deccan of India, is
a notable example of an early rock-cut monastery. The
inscriptions from this site date it to the middle of the first
century B.C.E. There is a sanctuary of apsidal plan, and
the front verandah was embellished with four decorated
columns and a doorway giving access to the interior. The
capitals of the columns were finely carved with sculp-
tures of horses, elephants, and bulls and riders. Further
columns are found in the interior, but these are plain
except for the representations of pots at the top and bot-
tom. Later in the monastery's history, with the spread of
MAHAYANA BUDDHISM, the walls were decorated with
images of BODHISATTVAS.

See also CONFUCIUS.

Further reading: Bechert, H., and Gombrich, R., eds.
The World of Buddhism. London: Thames and Hudson,
1984; Bhikkhu Nanamoh. The Life of the Buddha: Accord-
ing to the Pali Canon. Seattle: BPS Pariyatti Editions,
2001; Hallade, M. The Gandhara Style and the Evolution of
Buddhist Art. London: Thames and Hudson, 1968.

Bunjikat See kala-i kahkaha.

Calamadana See qiemo.

canals The control of water through the construction of
canals was a widespread, almost universal feature of early
Asian civilizations. Canals were dug for many reasons.
Foremost -was the provision of -water into irrigated fields to
increase agricultural production. This was important in
areas subject to the vagaries of the monsoon, as in southern
China, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar (Burma). Canals were also
built for drainage and for the movement of bulky and heavy
commodities by water. In many instances, state interven-
tion has been documented as the motivating force behind
the execution of major IRRIGATION and infrastructure
■works, but this does not mean that it was through the con-
trol of water distribution that rulers maintained authority.

CHINA

Canal construction and the related digging of defensive
moats often fed by rivers or canals began early in China
and reached a high point under the QIN (221-206 B.C.E.)
and Han dynasties (206 B.C.E. -220 C.E.). The Qin rulers
conceived, or at least persisted with, the huge irrigation
scheme based on the water of the Min River. Known as
the Dujiangyan ("capital river dam") project, it was
directed by Li Bing, the governor of SHU, appointed in
277 B.C.E. The Min River flo-ws down from the mountains
east of Chengdu and is prone to serious flooding. Li Bing,
later deified locally for his efforts, divided the river into
two channels. One continued on to its junction with the
Chang (Yangtze), -while the other or inner channel was
directed along canals hacked through the surrounding
upland and so onto the Chengdu Plain. There the water
was reticulated to a vast area of rice fields.

The Han Chinese have left a large corpus of records
that describe the widespread application of irrigation to
agriculture. Essentially this had three objectives that
varied with the local conditions. One was to introduce
water into the fields and rice plots by means of canals,
runnels, and dams. During the WARRING STATES PERIOD
(475-221 B.C.E.) there had been some limited irrigation
developments, but the expansion of irrigation networks
during the HAN DYNASTY was dramatic. The Bureau of
Command was responsible for organizing corvee or con-
vict labor for government construction projects, such as
the GREAT WALL, canals, dikes, and roads. In 130 B.C.E. a
major canal -was constructed to transport grain to the
capital from the east, and this provided water to irrigate
fields by means of small feeder channels. In 111 B.C.E.
six canals -were added to the Zheng Guo canal, which
■was fed by the Jing River, for irrigation. In this instance
the heavy silt load carried by the water was deemed
beneficial for millet production. The Hon Han Shu (His-
tory of the Later Har\) also provides details of how irriga-
tion facilities were put in place and the means whereby
the equitable distribution of water was managed. In the
second half of the first century B.C.E. Xin Zhen was
appointed the grand administrator of the Commandery
of Nan Yang. This was a large area located in southwest
Henan province. He personally traveled over the region
under his control, inspecting all possible areas that
could be improved by irrigation facilities. He then
ordered the construction of canals, dams, water gates,
and dikes, which greatly improved agricultural produc-
tion. He erected stone inscriptions to indicate ho-w the
water should be distributed for the benefit of all. When
his works were called to the attention of the court, he

62 canals

was promoted and awarded gold for his encouragement
of agriculture.

KOREA AND JAPAN

As in many other instances, the early states of Korea and
Japan were familiarized with irrigation techniques
through their contacts with the Chinese. In the early fifth
century King Nintoku of Japan had the Ishiwara River
diverted into a canal to bear water to thousands of
hectares of formerly marginal land. On the Osaka Plain a
10-kilometer (6 mi.) canal between 8.5 and 9.5 meters
(about 31 ft.) wide has been identified. The emperor's
role in enhancing agriculture is amply demonstrated.

INDIA AND SRI LANKA

In India, the ideal of a city propounded by Kautilya (late
fourth century B.C.E.) incorporated a royal palace in the
center, surrounded by square precincts, each with its own
function: an elephant park; areas for merchants, artisans,
and entertainment; and residences. These were protected
by a city wall with forts and moats. Religious sanctuaries
could be built both within the walls and beyond them,
and the dead were cremated in specified areas according
to the class of the deceased. Given the monsoon climate
and seasonal rainfall patterns, reservoirs were con-
structed, were linked to canals and often the surrounding
moats, and were sources for irrigated fields.

In Sri Lanka the early irrigation system that devel-
oped in the dry zone is regarded as one of the most inno-
vative and sophisticated in the preindustrial world. The
earliest inscriptions, dating from the third century B.C.E. ,
mention small-scale irrigation, and the enlargement of
the system was facilitated by the invention of the cistern
sluice, known as the hisokotuva, which regulated the flow
of water from a large reservoir or tank without endanger-
ing weirs. One of the major early achievements was the
diversion of the Ambanganga River, a tributary of the
Mahavali, which originates in the wet central highlands
south of ANURADHAPURA.

The Alisara canal, first mentioned during the reign of
King Vasabha (65-109), flowed for about 50 kilometers
(30 mi.) to the capital. This king is credited with a
marked expansion of the system, including not only the
canal but also 12 reservoirs. The Jayaganga canal, 80 kilo-
meters (48 mi.) long, carried water to Anuradhapura as
■well as irrigated an area of 62,000 hectares (155,000
acres). The gradient for much of its length involved a fall
of only 10 centimeters per kilometer.

SOUTHEAST ASIA

In 1931 ancient canals were detected crisscrossing the
Mekong Delta landscape on the basis of aerial photogra-
phy, linking the city of OC EO with another walled city
known at ANGKOR BOREI. Canals have been prominent fea-
tures of ANGKOR in Cambodia from the earliest European
accounts. DIOGO DO COUTO, writing in the late 16th cen-

tury, noted that there was, at the city of ANGKOR THOM, "a
causeway of the same width as the bridges, flanked by
canals, fed by the great moat around the city. The water
originates from the north and east, and leaves from the
south and west. The system is fed by the river diverted
there." A French aviator in the 1920s noted the lines of
ancient canals crossing the Mekong Delta; these link cen-
ters of the early FUNAN state, such as OC EO and Ta Kev.
The canal linking Oc Eo and Angkor Borei is 90 kilome-
ters (54 mi.) long. At Angkor, canals were built to link the
reservoirs with the rivers that fed them and the harays, or
reservoirs, they supplied. A text dating to the reign of
RAJENDRAVARMAN of Angkor describes how a grandee
named Mahendradhipativarman transformed forested land
into a village, consecrated an image, and made a haray:
"In a place of pasture where water was difficult to obtain,
in a forested hollow, he made a reservoir fed by three
rivers, as was the proper thing to do, for the benefit of
others." The inscription proceeds with a description of the
boundaries of rice fields, which include all the ponds to
the east, to the south as far as the canal, and to the north
to the canal at Panlin. GEORGES CCEDES has suggested that
the word used for "canal" in this section implies use in
irrigation. Moreover, many of the boundaries for rice
fields are described as reservoirs. The canals, however,
might not have been entirely or even partially concerned
with agriculture. Those on the Mekong Delta might have
assisted in drainage and transportation. The canals servic-
ing the harays of Angkor could have in effect been provid-
ing sacred water with no further reticulation to rice fields.
One lengthy canal seems to have linked stone quarries
with the GREAT LAKE and would have aided the transporta-
tion of building materials.

Farther west, in the dry zone of Myanmar (Burma), a
series of large reservoirs are found to the east, west, and
south of the city of Halin, the irrigation system of which
incorporated the long Muhaung canal. This complex sys-
tem of water distribution involved about 300 square kilo-
meters (120 sq. mi.) of land.

CENTRAL ASIA

Central Asia is particularly arid but contains many large
rivers that originate in the mountains and dissipate as
they enter the deserts, or in the case of the Syr Dar'ya and
Amu Dar'ya, the Aral Sea. Merv (Mary in Turkmenistan)
was located to command its sector of the SILK ROAD but
was also set in an arid environment. The economy of this
nodal center on the Silk Road linking China with Rome
and India depended not only on trade but also on agricul-
ture. Many major irrigation canals are found in the area
of the oasis.

Miran was a major SHAN-SHAN center. It was located
in the bleak and arid Taklamakan Desert, but formerly
the site lay between two rivers, long since dried up, and
canals had transported vi'ater to the site.

Canggal 63

The KUSHAN empire extended from Central Asia into
India and was ruled by a dynasty of god-kings. It had rel-
atively peaceful conditions, and trade linking China with
the Mediterranean flourished. Also in that period agricul-
tural production responded, in the dry conditions that
prevailed over much of the territory, to the establishment
of irrigation facilities. Major canals and the expansion of
agriculture in the Amu Dar'ya Valley and the Tashkent
and Samarqand oasis regions led to the foundation of
new urban settlements. The Zang canal, originating in
the Surkhan Dar'ya, led to increased prosperity for the
inhabitants of Zar-tepe. Irrigation works in the Zerafshan
Valley, according to A. R. Mukhamedianov, put 3,500
square kilometers (1,400 sq. mi.) under irrigation. A vast
area was put under irrigation in Khwarizm, the region
centered on the lower reaches of the Amu Dar'ya just
south of the Aral Sea in Uzbekistan. Here a fully inte-
grated system that involved major canals taking water
from the river and feeding minor distributaries was estab-
lished. One such canal was more than 90 kilometers in
length and involved the removal of more than 222 mil-
lion cubic meters (7.7 billion cu. ft.) of fill. Such agricul-
tural improvements in the broad riverine floodplains
■were accompanied by parallel intensification in the pied-
mont areas. There small dams restrained the flow of
mountain streams in the headwaters of the Zerafshan,
and the water was fed into a series of terraced fields. Tun-
nels and aqueducts augmented such systems. Just to the
east, the famous vineyards of FERGHANA relied on an
extensive irrigation system involving the construction of
a network of canals.

Further reading: De Silva, K. M. A History of Sri
Lanka. London: Hurst, 1981; Hsu, Cho-yun. Han Agricul-
ture: The Formation of Early Chinese Agrarian Economy.
Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1980; Loewe, M.,
and E. L. Shaugnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of
Ancient China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1999.

Canasapura A seventh-century inscription from
MUANG SEMA in northeast Thailand, written in SANSKRIT
and Khmer, records the donation of buffaloes, cattle, and
slaves of both sexes to a Buddhist community by the king
of Sri Canasapura. A second inscription, probably reused
from elsewhere and found at Ayutthaya in central Thai-
land, dates to 937 C.E. Written by a ruler called Man-
galavarman, it records that his ancestral line of kings
ruled over Sri Canasapura. This inscription is also in San-
skrit and Khmer rather than the Mon language, which
■was used in most inscriptions of the Chao Phraya Valley.
Both suggest that there -was a small state in the upper
Mun Valley over several generations during the period of
the CHENLA kingdoms (550-802 C.E.).

Candragupta II (r. 380-413 c.e.) Candragupta U, king
of the Gupta empire in India, was, by common consensus,
one of the greatest rulers of India.

He was the son of a great military leader, SAMUDRAGUFTA
(335-80), and was also known as Vikramaditya, a name
indicating great prestige, power, and -wealth. Aditya
means "rising Sun," so his title can be roughly translated
as the "Sun king." The considerable number of his gold
coins that survive in hoards reflect a reign of widespread
prosperity. This was noted by the Chinese Buddhist
monk and pilgrim FAXIAN, who visited India during his
reign and was struck by the opulent palaces and hospi-
tals. As was his father, Candragupta was a potent mili-
tary leader and won much renown with his victory over
the Scythians, or SAKAS, earning the title Sakari, or
destroyer of the Scythians.

Candragupta Maurya (r. c. 325-297 b.c.e.) Tradition-
ally, Candragupta Maurya was described as the son of the
king of Magadha of the Nanda dynasty and is credited with
the expulsion of the Greeks from that part of India and the
establishment of the Maurya empire.

After the short campaign of ALEXANDER THE GREAT in the
Indus Valley in 326 B.C.E. , the northwestern part of India
■was ruled by his appointees, who included the kings of
TAXILA and Abhishara, as well as Porus, a follower of
Alexander. This phase was short lived, however. When the
Greek general SELEUCUS I NICATOR attempted to reestablish
control over northwestern India, Candragupta entered
into a diplomatic agreement whereby he maintained his
hold over the disputed territory and gave Seleucus 500
elephants. At this point Candragupta took control of
much ne-w land in Gedrosia, the Paropamisadae (the area
of Kabul), and Arachosia (Kandahar) in Afghanistan. This
move meant that Greek colonies founded by Alexander
the Great, such as Alexandria ad Caucasum (begram) and
Alexandropolis (Kandahar), reverted to Indian control but
maintained a strong Hellenistic presence. The establish-
ment of official relations led Seleucus to send an ambas-
sador, MEGASTHENES, to the court of Candragupta at
R4TALIPUTRA. Megasthenes' description of Pataliputra
leaves no doubt as to the power of the king and the splen-
dor of his capital. It is recorded that he possessed 8,000
chariots and 9,000 war elephants.

His principal achievements, however, -were the defeat
of the kingdom of Mahadhan in about 322 B.C.E. and the
establishment of the Maurya empire. His death allegedly
followed his becoming a Jain ascetic and starving himself.

See also SHANG STATE.

Dalverzin Tepe 89

Dai An Dai An, in Quang Tri province, Vietnam, is a
site of the CHAM CIVILIZATION. It is best known as the find
location of a remarkable stone relief carving, showing
what seem to be two polo players. The horses are ani-
mated, with tails held high, and have bells around their
necks, while the riders wield what look like polo sticks
and ride on saddles equipped with stirrups. Emmanuel
Guillon has stressed that the horse trappings and stirrups
are paralleled in Southeast Asia in BOROBUDUR, Java, in
Indonesia, but otherwise they recall similar depictions of
riders from Tang dynasty China. This particular example
dates to the 10th century C.E.

DaibutSU The Daibutsu was a massive gilded bronze
statue of the Buddha, ordered by the Japanese emperor
Shoniu in 743 C.E. The statue stood in the largest
wooden building in the world. Shomu adopted a policy
of establishing BUDDHISM as the principal religion of
Japan during the period of the NARA STATE, when the
capital was at HEIJO-KYO. In 741 Shomu ordered that
Buddhist temples be constructed in all provinces, with
the finest and largest ones in the capital city. However,
there was a rebellion against the emperor, who moved
the court first to Kuni, then to Shigaraki. In 745 C.E. he
returned to Heijo-kyo, and the task of casting the Bud-
dha in the form of Vairocana, the source of creation
including all other Buddhas, was begun. It was now
located in the temple of TODAIJI on the eastern edge of
Heijo-kyo. It finally stood 10.82 meters (about 36 ft.)
high and required the pouring, over a period of at least
two years, of 400 tons of copper. The hall was then built
over the statue in 752 C.E., and the dedication took
place. This hall was centrally placed in a large monastic
complex that included two pagodas, each standing 100
meters (330 ft.) high.

Daimabad Daimabad is a prehistoric settlement
located in the Tapti Basin of the Godavari River catch-
ment, in western India. It reached a maximal area of 30
hectares (75 acres) during the last of five phases of occu-
pation that extended from about 2000 to 1200 B.C.E., rep-
resenting the southernmost extension of the Indus
civilization. The first phase belongs to the Savalda culture
and covered only a tenth of the site's final size. It yielded
evidence for mud-brick houses of modest proportions
and an agricultural economy based on barley, lentils, and
beans. The inhabitants had a knowledge of copper metal-
lurgy and wore beads of carnelian and agate.

The second phase is notable for the evidence it has
provided for an intrusion of the late INDUS VALLEY CIVI-
LIZATION into this part of India. The houses were made of
mud brick, and similar material was used to line a grave.
House floors were covered with plaster. Undoubted evi-
dence for the Indus civilization is seen in the recovery of
two terra-cotta SEALS and three potsherds, all bearing the

Indus script. Characteristic Indus pottery shards were
found scattered over an area of 20 hectares (50 acres).
The radiocarbon dates suggest that this occupation took
place in about 1800 B.C.E.

Dalverzin Tepe Dalverzin Tepe, an ancient city in
southern Uzbekistan, flourished in the KUSHAN empire.
The city was rectangular, covering an area of 32.5 hectares
(81.25 acres), with an additional circular citadel on the
southeastern corner. Like many other Kushan cities, it
was originally a foundation of the BACTRLAN GREEKS dur-
ing the third and second centuries B.C.E. but was embel-
lished by the Kushans. Dalverzin was a center for the
production of a wide range of artifacts, not least molded
terra-cotta statuettes. These were devoted to a seated god-
dess probably deeply venerated at this site and the sur-
rounding region. It occupies a naturally strong position on
the bank of the Karmaki-say River, the dry bed of which is
now seen to the south and west of the city walls. A canal
ran the length of the eastern ramparts. These walls were
strongly built and provided for defense. They were up to
12 meters (39 ft.) wide and 20 meters (66 ft.) high. There
are many towers, and the interior incorporates passage-
ways and commanding emplacements for archers. The top
of the walls provided platforms for the mounting of ballis-
tae. Beyond the city, there were fields, orchards, some resi-
dences, and temples. The lower city within the walls was
divided by a street system and contained distinct areas of
opulent homes, craft workshops, enclaves for merchants,
the poorer part of the populace, and reservoirs. The burial
ground lay outside the city walls.

The excavation of domestic dwellings revealed con-
siderable sophistication in the size and decoration of the
homes of the elite. Rooms were grouped around a court-
yard or a hall and had splendidly painted walls. Each
home contained a fire altar. A number of statues in clay
and gypsum have been recovered, showing, for example,
a high-status woman and a man dressed in a belted tunic,
whose expression imparts an aura of serene confidence.
The wealth of the leaders of this community can be
judged from a hoard of gold found beneath the doorstep
of a mansion, containing gold disks and bars whose
weight was recorded on each with a KHAROSHTHI inscrip-
tion, gold bracelets, earrings, and pectorals.

Archaeologists working here also examined Buddhist
temples, one of which lies outside the city walls, the other
located toward the center of the city itself. The former
occupies a low hill about 400 meters (1,320 ft.) to the
north of the city walls. It had a stupa and associated monas-
tic buildings. One of the rooms in this monastery contained
the modeled clay statue of a royal figure that encouraged
the excavators to name the chamber "the king's hall." The
serene figure wore a kaftan and trousers and a tall, conical
hat embellished with disks and decorated at the base with a

90 Damb Sadaat

row of circular beads. A second clay statue from the same
room shows a mustached man wearing a belted kaftan;
there are also modeled clay heads of WOMEN, one of ■which
still retains a hint of gold overlay. Coins of Vima Kadphises
and Vima Tak [to] date this complex to the late first and
early second centuries C.E. Statues of the Buddha, which
seem to have been deliberately destroyed, littered the build-
ing's interior and probably reflect the Sassanian incursions
into this region during the third century C.E.

The city declined toward the end of the Kushan
period, and the defenses decayed. It was not abandoned
at that juncture, however. The potters' quarter still func-
tioned, and the temple was maintained.

Damb Sadaat Damb Sadaat is a small but important
archaeological settlement covering a little less than two
hectares (5 acres) and located 14 kilometers (8.4 mi.)
south of Quetta in Baluchistan in Pakistan. It has given
its name to one of the four major regional groups of
sites ascribed to the early Harappan culture. The site is
strategically placed to control access to the Bolan Pass,
which leads to the plains of the Indus. It had a long
sequence of occupation, and the three areas excavated
yielded many ceramic remains demonstrating continu-
ity, including the so-called Quetta ware first described
by Stuart Pigott.

The sites of the Damb Sadaat phase are nearly all of a
similarly small size, but three stand out as being signifi-
cantly larger. Quetta Miri covers 23 hectares, MUNDIGAK
19, and Kranai Hill nearly II. The overall pattern
obtained from investigating these settlements is that the
Damb Sadaat economy was based on agriculture and the
herding of domestic stock. The people were familiar with
copper smelting and casting and made fine ceramics. The
radiocarbon dates suggest that this phase belongs to the
period between 2500 and 3500 B.C.E.

See also CONFUCIUS.

pottery vessels. The remains include small stone imple-
ments and grinding stones for processing grains. This
undated initial phase of occupation resembles other early
agricultural contexts at sites like Kili Gul Mohammed and
MEHRGARH in Pakistan. At the former site, similar remains
date to between 5000 and 4000 B.C.E. During the second
phase, pottery making was undertaken, together with the
production of a range of artifacts that include human and
animal figurines, bone tools, and evidence for copper cast-
ing. The third phase saw the production of ceramics that
conform with the KOT DIJI phase of the Early Harappan.
The earliest evidence of construction in mud brick was
also encountered, and further copper implements were
found. A conflagration marked the transition from the
early to the later Kot Diji occupation of the site. Further
evidence for construction in mud brick was encountered,
and new artifacts included carnelian beads, stone weights,
STEATITE beads, and LAPIS LAZULI. This phase corresponds
to the occupation of the major cities of the Indus Valley
civilization. It was followed by further evidence for
destruction through fire.

Gunavarman (c. 500 C.E.) Gunavarman was a ruler
mentioned on an INSCRIPTION from GO THAP on the plain of
reeds in Vietnam, a flat expanse on the northern margin of
the Mekong Delta.

The inscription, dated toward the end of the fifth century
C.E., states that a ruler, probably named Jayavarman, had
been victorious in battle. It further describes how
Jayavarman founded many sanctuaries dedicated to
Vishnu and placed his son, Gunavarman, in charge of
one, which had been "wrested from the mud." This might
be an allusion to the drainage of the Plain of Reeds where
the inscription was set up to foster rice production. The
text is one of the few dating to the period of the early
delta trading state known as FUNAN.
See also JAYAVARMAN OE EUNAN.

Guo Chin Lun The Guo Chin Lun (The faults of QIn)
was an influential tract written hy ]IA YI (201-168 B.C.E.)
during the early years of the Western HAN DYNASTY of
China. It explored the reasons underlying the collapse of
the Qin dynasty and urged a more humane approach to
rule by the Han emperors, instead of the autocratic
repression practiced by the first emperor, QIN SHIHUANGDI
(259-210 B.C.E.), and his successor.

Gumla Gumla is a small (0.7 hectare; 1.75 acre) settle-
ment in the Gomal Valley of Pakistan. Its importance lies
in the long sequence of occupation documented during
excavations by A. H. Dani, which showed the early agri-
culture here and the later development of the INDUS VAL-
LEY CIVILIZATION. Six distinct phases of occupation have
been described, beginning with the remains of a commu-
nity that probably undertook agriculture but did not make

Guojiacun Guojiacun is a site located on the Liaodong
Peninsula of northeastern China. It is important as a pre-
historic jade manufactory. In the third millennium B.C.E.,
artifacts of jade assumed considerable importance in Chi-
nese rituals. Sites of the LONGSHAN and LIANGZHU CUL-
TURES have furnished consistent evidence for a
relationship between elite individuals and the possession
of ritually important jade objects such as hi disks, cong

Gupta empire 121

tubes, and yazhang blades. Guojiacun is a contemporary
of these sites, and manufacturing tools and half-finished
objects have been found there. Objects of a jade matching
that of Liaodong have been found in Longshan sites in
Shandong province.

Gupta empire The Gupta empire had its genesis
under King Srigupta I (270-290 C.E.), who ruled one of
the many small kingdoms in the Ganga (Ganges) Valley
in India from his capital at PATALIPUTRA. He was suc-
ceeded by his son Ghatotkacha and then by his son Can-
dragupta I (305-325). The empire he founded lasted for
about three centuries. Its hallmark was a series of kings
who combined military success with an interest in cul-
ture, science, literature, arts, and architecture and the
welfare of the people. In this wealthy and peaceful
empire, the sovereigns took the title Maharajadhiraja,
"great king of kings." An inscription from Allahabad
composed by Harisena on an Asokan column describes
the military successes of SAMUDRAGUPTA (335-380), suc-
cessor to Candragupta I, who defeated many rival kings
and took his army south to southern Andhra Pradesh to
incorporate fresh areas into the empire but who still had
himself depicted on his gold coinage playing the lyre. He
was a Hindu who performed the ritually significant
horse-sacrifice ceremony. A particular feature of the rule
of his successor, CANDRAGUPTA II (r. 380-413), is that the
empire was visited by the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim FAX-
IAN, who left a description of his visit. He commented on
the peace and prosperity he witnessed. There was no cap-
ital punishment, but the legal code could order a series of
fines. Public works were often evident, such as the
endowment of the Buddhist university at Nalanda,
despite the rulers' preference for Hinduism. Indeed, the
kings were referred to as "equal to the gods," including
Indra and Varuna. However, the reign of Skandagupta,
who died in about 467 C.E., was disturbed by the first of
several irruptions of the Huns in India, and in 530-540
C.E. a dissident leader named Yashodharman rose to beat
not only the Huns, but the Guptas themselves. His
inscription at Mandasor claimed his sovereignty over
much of India.

WEALTH AND TRADE

The period of the Gupta empire appears to have been one
of wealth and prosperity. The kings issued high-quality
COINAGE in gold, silver, and copper, which is found
widely over the realm. This wealth was based on interna-
tional trade as well as productive agriculture. After the
decline of the Roman Empire, the Guptas looked increas-
ingly to Southeast Asia for trading opportunities, and the

presence of Indian merchants is in evidence over much of
that area. IRRIGATION was widespread in India, and there
is evidence for state assistance in its provision. Industries
were ordered on the basis of self-perpetuating guilds,
who often owned their own assets in the form of trust
funds. There were, for example, guilds of bankers, silk
weavers, and oil pressers. State revenues were raised on
the strength of a tax on agricultural and industrial pro-
duction and on land. Salt, for example, was subject to a
sales tax.

BUREAUCRACY

This system required a large bureaucracy. Civil depart-
ments were administered by mantri. Foreign affairs,
including trade, were under the control of the sandhivi-
grahika. There were at least three ranks of military com-
mand, the mahabaladhikrta, mahadandanayaka, and
scnapati. The army itself was inade up of cavalry, the ele-
phant corps, and the infantry. There were also lesser offi-
cials, local boards, and a nagarasresthin, which assisted in
governing rural communities.

ARCHITECTURE

In harmony with the civil order and wealth of the Gup-
tas, their rule witnessed the initiation of major develop-
ments in Indian temple architecture. These took the form
of a square or rectangular sacred chapel with a porch or
covered walkway around it. Some forms have a low tower
above the temple; others are circular. Notable examples
are the Kapotesvara temple at Cezarla, dated to the fourth
century C.E., and the Durga temple at Aihole. The Bhitar-
gaon temple in Kanpur was constructed in brick. As
befitted such temples, Gupta sculpture of deities also
flourished, particularly in the SARNATH school. The gods
were shown in various poses, such as the Buddha's attain-
ing knowledge or imparting wisdom.

THE ARTS AND SCIENCES

Painting also flourished in the Gupta empire. This is
clearly seen in the murals of the AJANTA caves in Maha-
rashtra, with their landscapes, depictions of buildings,
and splendidly attired people. Poetry was encouraged,
and the works of Kalidasa, who lived during the reign of
Vikramaditya, remain prominent in the SANSKRIT reper-
toire. The astronomer Aryabhatta in 499 C.E. calculated
the value of pi and the length of the solar year as 365.358
days. More than a millennium before Galileo, he also pro-
posed that the Earth rotated on its own axis and revolved
around the Sun.

Further reading: Mookerji, R. K. Gupta Empire.
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1995; Williams, J. G. The Art
of Gupta India: Empire and Province. Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1982.

Halin Halin is a city of the PYU CIVILIZATION of modern
Myanmar (Burma). It is located in the valley of the Mu
River, south of the modern town of Shwebo, an area that
receives only about 750 millimeters (30 in.) of rainfall
per year. The Mu River is a major tributary of the
Irrawaddy Tradition has it that the city was founded by
an Indian prince. Of subrectangular form, the BRICK walls
enclose an area of about 500 hectares (1,250 acres) and
are surrounded by a moat. There are 12 gateways demar-
cated by inward-sloping walls. Radiocarbon dates for the
charred gateposts suggest that they belong to the second
or third century C.E. As at BEIKTHANO, there is an inner
walled citadel. Excavations took place in 1904—5, in
1929-30, and again in 1962-67. Several square or rectan-
gular brick structures were found to contain burial urns
for the cremated dead. It was not, however, unusual to
find extended inhumation burials as well, a survival from
the prehistoric past. Site 9 included a brick hall incorpo-
rating 84 wooden columns to support the roof, perhaps
an assembly or meeting hall. Unlike Beikthano, several
INSCRIPTIONS have been found. One, inscribed in the Pyu
language, records the burial of a high-status person called
Ru-ba. A second contains eight lines of Pyu and mentions
a queen Jatrajiku. Another text cannot be read, but it lies
above a carved panel showing three rows of worshipers
wearing elaborate headdresses, necklaces, and ear orna-
ments. A fourth inscription, also in the little-known Pyu
language but employing an Indian script datable to the
eighth or ninth century, mentions a person named Sri
Trivigrama. A small agate SEAL also bore the name Daya-
danam and employed a South Indian script dating to the
fifth century C.E. Other finds showed skill in working
iron and bronze. There was also a monumental aspect to
the city architecture, for the New History of the Tang

Dynasty describes a "great white image, over 30 meters
(99 ft.) high, opposite the gate to the palace." A surviving
base to a statue incorporates rows of worshipers, each
wearing fine jewelry and a headdress.

Some of the artifacts found during the excavations
reveal skill in iron forging and the role played by this
metal: There are knives and arrowheads, as well as cal-
trops, spiked implements to counter enemy cavalry.
These were concentrated outside the city gates. Gold
working was obviously undertaken, and rings, pendants,
and beads have been recovered. Bronze mirrors have also
been found. The Halin coins bear an image of the sun-
burst or, rarely, the srivatsa a motif derived from the
mother goddess.

The burial rituals at Halin involved cremation and
the interment of the dead in ceramic jars placed in brick
buildings beyond the city walls. Grave goods include
gold rings, flowers, gold and silver leaves with writing,
coins, and iron artifacts. One such offering was a six-
sided plate of iron studded with rows of nails. A series of
large reservoirs are found to the east, west, and south of
the city, the IRRIGATION system of which incorporated the
long Muhaung Canal. Janice Stargardt has reconstructed
a complex system of water distribution involving about
300 square kilometers (120 sq. mi.) of land. The city was
destroyed during the ninth century C.E.

See also CONFUCIUS.

Further reading: Barrett-Jones, A. M. Early Tenth
Century Inscriptions from Java. Dordrecht: Foris Publica-
tions, 1984; Jacob, J. M. "Pre-Angkor Cambodia: Evi-
dence from the Inscriptions in Khmer Concerning the
Common People and Their Environment." In W. Early
South East Asia, edited by R. Smith and W. Watson. Kuala
Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1978; Mattos, G. L.
"Eastern Zhou Bronze Inscriptions." In New Sources of
Early Chinese History: An Introduction to the Reading of
Inscriptions and Manuscripts, edited by E. L. Shaughnessy.
Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China and Insti-
tute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1997;
Salomon, R. Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhara. Seat-
tle: University of Washington Press, 1999; . Indian

Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit,
Prakrit and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1998; Shaughnessy, E. L.
"Zhouyuan Oracle-Bone Inscriptions: Entering the
Research Stage?" Early China 11-12 (1985-1987):
146—163; Vickery, M. Society, Economics and Politics in
Pre-Angkor Cambodia. Tokyo: The Centre for East Asian
Cultural Studies for UNESCO, 1998.

Iron Age The Iron Age of the Ganges (Ganga)-Jumuna
River system of northern India and Pakistan is synony-
mous with the PAINTED GREY WARE culture dated from the
11th to the sixth century B.C.E. This ceramic, which has a
characteristic gray color embellished with black geomet-
ric designs, is found over a considerable area, from
Lakhio Pir in Sind and HARAPPA in the west to KAUSAMBI
in the east, from the foothills of the Himalayas in the
north to UJJAIN in the south. The gray ware itself is rela-
tively sparse at the various sites and probably represents a
luxury item. Site surveys have identified more than 600
settlements, the vast majority of which are small agricul-
tural villages rarely exceeding two hectares (5 acres) in
area. However, there is also some evidence for the devel-
opment of a two-tiered settlement structure, involving
centers extending over an area of 10 to 15 hectares (25 to
37.5 acres), linked with the smaller villages. At the site of
Jakhera, there are probably defenses in the form of a ram-
part around the settlement. Mud bricks were used for a
multiroomed building at Bhagwanpura, and a black-
smith's forge has been excavated at ATRANJIKHERA. While
some early sites have not revealed any trace of iron, this
metal was of central importance because it facilitated the

clearance of the thick forests covering the area. Iron was
used for weaponry in the form of arrowheads and spears
and also for sickles and hoes.

No plowshares have been found, but it is likely that
plowing was used in an agricultural regime that was
based on rice and that also had barley and wheat cultiva-
tion. This system, which continues in the area today,
would have permitted double cropping. The subsistence
regime also included the raising of domestic cattle, sheep,
pigs, dogs, and horses. Fishing was also widely under-
taken. Houses were made of timber and plastered wattle,
as well as mud brick. Some houses were substantial and
incorporated up to 13 rooms. Rice and animal bones have
been found in the hearths. The material culture included
highly proficient ceramics fired in kilns, a bone industry,
and, rarely, glass bangle fragments and beads. A stone
mold from Atranjikhera was probably used to cast jew-
elry. Gold, etched carnelian, and agate ornaments were
used. There are some terra-cotta human and animal fig-
urines, and dice indicate an enthusiasm for gambling.

This Iron Age culture of the Ganges (Ganga) Valley of
northern India was a crucial period in the early formation
of states. It is illuminated by the oral traditions known as
the later Vedic hymns. When referring to this formative
period, they mention the development of rulers termed the
ekaraj. A prime role of the ekaraj was leadership in battle,
but consecration ceremonies also hint at the presence of a
court and functionaries, who include the military leader, a
priest, court poet, and collector or distributor of revenue.
Religious rituals were also an important feature of life in
early centers by the sixth century B.C.E., with particular
reference to sacrifices to the gods, for the king's role was to
ensure prosperous agriculture.

CHINA

Iron, like bronze, almost certainly reached China from
the West, along the course of the ancient SILK ROAD. It
reached Xinjiang in far western China between the 10th
and seventh centuries B.C.E. , although the earliest artifacts
there took the form of small tools and ornaments. There
are some parallels between the iron objects in this part of
China and those found in Ferghana. In due course, iron
technology was adapted in the central plains and became
increasingly important both for agriculture and warfare.
Thus the period of WARRING STATES (475-221 B.C.E.) saw a
proliferation in the use of iron. Armor, for example, was
fashioned from iron plates, as seen in the surviving hel-
met from Xiadu, a capital of the state of YAN. This same
city, like many others during the period of Warring
States, incorporated areas where specialist smiths pro-
duced iron items. Chinese ironworking took on an impe-
tus all of its own, particularly in the area of iron casting,
rather than forging. The control over very high tempera-
tures required in the production of molten iron was a
hallmark of Chinese iron technology that long preceded
the attainment of similar levels of skill in the West. It is

irrigation 159

manifested in the casting of an iron cauldron as early as
536 B.C.E. in the foundries of the state of JIN. This exper-
tise, linked with the scale of production during the
period of the HAN DYNASTY, led to a veritable economic
revolution, as iron was applied to increasing agricultural
production.

SOUTHEAST ASIA

How ironworking began in Southeast Asia is not known.
It might well have been introduced through trade with
southern Chinese states but could equally have been
inspired through trade with India or through indigenous
discovery. Whichever the case, iron was widely used in
the manufacture of tools, weapons, and ornaments dur-
ing the second half of the last millennium B.C.E. Iron ore
is relatively widespread, and while there is some evidence
for casting iron items in the DONG SON culture of north-
ern Vietnam, the vast majority of Southeast Asian iron
was worked through forging. The efficacy of the iron
spades and hoes is seen in the construction of earthen
banks to control water flow and create moats at such sites
as NOEN U-LOKE in northeast Thailand. The same settle-
ment has produced large socketed iron spears, while one
young man was found with an iron arrowhead lodged in
his spine, a sign of conflict during the late prehistoric
period. At the site of BAN DON TA PHET, many iron bill-
hooks and spears have emphasized this point.

irrigation

CHINA

With China's variable climate, relatively unpredictable
rainfall, and growing population, irrigation played a cru-
cial role in agriculture. Essentially, China was divided
into two major regions, the northern half dominated by
the cultivation of millet and the southern half of rice.
Millet agriculture was concentrated in the vast plain of
the Huang (Yellow) River. The loess soil deposited by the
river from its passage across the plateau to the west pro-
vided rich and easily worked conditions, but floods from
the river and its propensity to change its course were
major problems. The monsoon region that had its most
northerly extent in the Huai and Han River Basins and
the land south to Lingnan was adapted to the cultivation
of rice, a marsh grass. The monsoon, however, is unpre-
dictable, and reticulating water from dams to the rice
fields is an important means of ensuring a good harvest.

There is no compelling evidence for irrigation during
the SHANG STATE (1766-1045 B.C.E.). The Shang were well
able to drain wet or swampy areas with ditches or canals,
as revealed through excavation at the site of Xiaotun. How-
ever, the available records indicate that it was wetter then
than now, and the ORACLE BONES and other texts suggest
that fields were drained and the Shang rulers had a consis-
tent interest in opening new land to millet cultivation.

During the WESTERN ZHOU DYNASTY (1045-771
B.C.E.) inscriptions were commonly cast into bronze ves-
sels. These form a vital contemporary source of historic

information, a source that is constantly expanding with
archaeological research. The bronze vessel known as the
Qiu Wei ding was cast during the reign of King Gong (c.
917-900 B.C.E.). Its text incorporates one of the earliest
Chinese references to a dispute over land and describes
"King Gong's irrigation works at the two Rong rivers."

Further early records for irrigation are from the
Spring and Autumn period (722-476 B.C.E.). These
described the construction of the Shao reservoir in north-
ern Anhui province under the rule of King Zhuang of
CHU (r. c. 612-591 B.C.E.). This facility had five water
gates to receive and distribute water from the tributaries
of the Huai River, to maintain a steady supply to the rice
fields. It was said that I million mu of land was irrigated
froin this reservoir. It is difficult to determine the precise
area of a mu, but it is thought to have measured about
100 by 100 paces, or just less than one hectare. In a sec-
ond system of extensive irrigation, water was taken from
the Zhang River during the reign of Marquis Xiang of WEI
(424—387 B.C.E.) to reduce salinization in the rice and
millet fields.

In 316 B.C.E. the QIN state defeated the kingdom of
SHU in Sichuan and set about improving its agricultural
production. The first task was to redistribute land to new
settlers on the basis of strictly ordered rectangular parcels
within raised footpaths. The Min River flows southwest
of Chengdu before its confluence with the Chang
(Yangtze), and was prone to flooding. This problem,
linked with the need to irrigate the new rice fields, led to
the construction by Li Bing (306-251 B.C.E.) of the
Dujiangyan dam on the Chengdu Plain, an irrigation pro-
ject that exists to this day after a history of 2,300 years of
continuous use. State intervention by the Qin in infras-
tructure projects such as major irrigation works contin-
ued to the end of the dynasty, and the massive
Dujiangyan project has been described as the largest engi-
neering work yet seen in the eastern half of Eurasia.

During the Han dynasty, China witnessed a massive
increase in population and a period of relative peace after
the drawn-out warfare that characterized the preceding
WARRING STATES PERIOD (475-221 B.C.e). Iron could now
be applied to increasing agricultural production and pro-
viding the tools necessary to complete large engineering
works. The Han Chinese have left a large corpus of
records that describe the widespread application of irriga-
tion to agriculture. Essentially, this had three objectives
that varied with the local conditions. One was to intro-
duce water into the fields by means of canals and dams,
another was to drain swampy land to create fields, and
the third was to reduce salinization. This knowledge is
nowhere better illustrated than in a memorandum pre-
pared by Jia Rang in 7 B.C.E. for the einperor Aidi (26-1
B.C.E.). He wrote that not digging canals had three detri-
ments, and digging them had three benefits. Problems
issuing from the lack of irrigation and flood-control mea-
sures meant that people suffered from the humidity as

i6o irrigation

floodwater evaporated and the soil turned alkaline. This
meant that grain did not flourish. The benefits of irriga-
tion included the washing out of salts from the fields, the
spreading of silt to increase soil fertility, and the increase
in production fivefold on high ground and 10-fold in
low-lying terrain. Finally, with canals, heavy goods could
be more easily transported.

A memorandum of the second century C.E. named the
principal components of an Eastern Han irrigation system.
The yanzhu was the reservoir, and the fang the dike beside
the reservoir. A sui was the channel at the top of the field
that distributed water, and a gui drained water away from
the field when necessary. The contemporary texts of the
Han are virtually unanimous in describing the increased
agricultural efficiency that resulted from irrigation works.
The History of the Later Han Dynasty (hou HANSHu)
recorded that in 36 C.E. there had been little rain in Gansu,
but officials repaired the irrigation works, and everyone
prospered as a result. In 90 C.E. the grand administrator Lu
Bei had canals dug in Dong commandery, and the people
became very wealthy. Ma Yuan was a great military com-
mander responsible for conquering the DONG SON people
of the Hong (Red) River Delta in modern Vietnam in the
mid-second century C.E. It is recorded that he also dug irri-
gation canals for the benefit of the people.

KOREA

Rice cultivation in Korea was beyond doubt introduced
from China and was the mainstay of the SHILLA and
PAEKCHE states in the south of the peninsula. By the
fourth century, the agricultural system of China had
developed considerable sophistication, involving the
diversion of rivers into canals and reticulation into rice
fields. Iron agricultural tools, such as the wooden spade
and hoe tipped with iron, were also manufactured. This
technology was applied to Korean agriculture where
ponds developed for irrigation were linked with canal
systems. Korea also became a conduit for the spread of
this knowledge into Japan during the fifth century C.E.

Irrigation in Korea was instituted at least by the period
of Chinese Han settlement, when reservoirs for feeding
water to rice fields were constructed. During the subse-
quent period of Three Kingdoms, royal and aristocratic
landoviTiers sought to increase production. Extensive irriga-
tion was undertaken, for example, during the reign of King
Chijung of Shilla (r. 500-514 C.E.), together with the use of
plow oxen. Slightly later, an inscription dating to 536 C.E.,
during the reign of King Pophung, described construction
of the "luxuriant dike" as part of an irrigation facility. It had
a long life, for in 798 C.E. another text described the under-
taking of repairs. It must have been a major project, as it
involved 136 ax men and 14,140 soldiers.

JAPAN

Rice cultivation began in Japan during the first millen-
nium B.C.E, probably imported from established agricul-

tural communities in Korea. The earliest agricultural vil-
lages, ascribed to the YAYOI culture (300 B.C.E. -300 C.E.),
already practiced a developed form of rice cultivation
involving the creation of small bunded fields. Many such
fields were covered by flood deposits and have been inves-
tigated by archaeologists. It is clear that they involved irri-
gation and drainage ditches. With the application of iron
technology, also obtained at about the same time from the
mainland, agricultural tools were forged to facilitate earth
moving. This made it possible, for example, not only to
build massive mounded tombs, the largest of which cov-
ered 60 hectares (150 acres) and was ringed by three
moats, but also to create irrigation facilities. Evidence for
irrigation late in the Yayoi period has been discovered
through excavations on the Nara Plain, where six-meter
(19.8-ft.)-wide irrigation ditches up to 1.5 meters (4.95
ft.) deep have been identified. The YAMATO state, which
lasted from about 300 to 700 C.E., was led by powerful
military rulers whose courts relied ultimately on the pro-
duction of rice surpluses. Kings therefore paid particular
attention to agriculture, and the NIHONGI, an early eighth-
century history text, records instances of royally inspired
irrigation works, such as the diversion of the Ishiwara
River into a canal to carry water to thousands of hectares
of formerly marginal land. This was undertaken by King
Nintoku in the early fifth century. Archaeological verifica-
tion of such endeavors is also seen in the Furuichi Canal
of the Osaka Plain, where a 10-kilometer (6 mi.) canal
between 8.5 and 9.5 meters wide has been identified. King
NINTOKU (313-99 C.E.), who was interred in the largest
known kofun, or burial mound, also attracted Korean
workers to help in the construction and maintenance of
his projects. This system may well have been instrumental
in the adoption of a range of iron agricultural tools to the
construction of irrigation facilities, some of which were
interred in rich tombs of the period.

The late Yamato state and the NARA STATE (710-794
C.E.) saw a marked intensification in central control over
the populace at large. Legal codes prescribed the social
position of every individual, from the highest minister to
the lowest slave. Under the conditions of the Yoro Code of
718 C.E., the central ministries that operated under an
autocratic imperial regime included one responsible for
irrigation matters. The peasant farmers were allocated
land, the amount varying with the composition of each
household, in which people were counted from the age of
six years. The allocation was reviewed every six years.
These rice farmers paid a tax in kind to the state but oth-
erwise enjoyed an element of personal freedom on their
plots of land. Since the irrigation systems were state
owned and controlled, however their freedom of action
was strictly limited.

INDIA

That India has a long history of irrigation to improve
agricultural production is evident from the description of

irrigation i6i

canal excavation and bringing water to low-lying areas
contained in the Vedas, the corpus of sacred hymns dat-
ing back into the second or even third millennia B.C.E.
Identifying archaeological evidence for such irrigation
works is not straightforward, although Gregory Possehl
has suggested that irrigation may have been in place by
the AMRI-NAL phase of the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
(3200-2600 B.C.E.) . In the case of Baluchistan, irrigation
probably took the form of diverting mountain streams
onto the extensive river terraces. On the Indus plains,
hov^rever, it is more likely that river floods, reaching out
over the extensive flood plains encouraged the sowing of
wheat and barley, with the harvest proceeding as the
waters receded. In southern India, tanks and canals were
employed. KAUTILYA, who composed his ARTHASASTRA in
the late fourth century B.C.E., was -weW aware of the
importance of tracts with an assured water supply and
the possibility of double cropping. He mentions the culti-
vation of rice, wheat, barley, millet, beans, and a wide
range of other vegetables, herbs, and spices. Irrigation
was also encouraged as a means to further reliable returns
and increase the wealth of the state. One of the best
examples of irrigation comes from the dam constructed
during the Mauryan period on Lake Sudarsana near Juna-
gadh during the reign of CANDRAGUPTA (325-297 B.C.E.).
This was maintained over many centuries, for it was
restored in the fifth century C.E. by the local governor
during the reign of King Skandagupta. Indeed, irrigation
works were widely applied during the Gupta empire as
part of state concern for increasing production.

CENTRAL ASIA

The arid terrain that characterizes so much of the ancient
SILK ROAD from the MERV (modern Mary) oasis to the
TARIM BASIN is crossed by a series of rivers, of which the
Amu Dar'ya and Syr Dar'ya are particularly notable. Irri-
gation there was a vital component to the development of
states. Already by the fifth and early fourth millennia
B.C.E., the oasis region that is now Turkmenistan had
attracted agricultural settlements in which barley and
wheat were cultivated on the basis of an irrigation sys-
tem. Canals in the region of ALTYN TEPE reached many
kilometers in length. Four thousand years passed before
the BACTRIAN GREEK rulers instituted irrigation schemes.
The Sogdians grew wealthy on their irrigation agriculture
and control of trade along the Silk Road, while the
KUSHAN kings expended much effort into the provision of
irrigation works. Major canals and the expansion of agri-
culture in the Amu Dar'ya, the Tashkent, and Samarqand
oasis regions led to the foundation of new urban settle-
ments, while a vast area was brought under irrigation in
KHWARIZM, the region centered on the lower reaches of
the Amu Dar'ya. Here, a fully integrated system was
established, with major canals taking water from the river
and feeding minor distributaries. One such canal was
more than 90 kilometers (54 mi.) long.

SRI LANKA

Although Sri Lanka enjoys a continually high tempera-
ture, there is considerable regional diversity in the amount
and seasonal distribution of rainfall. Whereas the south-
ern parts of the island receive up to 3,750 millimeters
(150 in.) of rainfall per annum, the northern dry zone has
only 750 to 1,750 millimeters (30 to 70 in.) a year, and
the rain concentrates in the period of the northeast mon-
soon, from November to January. Droughts can then per-
sist for more than three months. Under the development
of an urban civilization, such as that of ANURADHAPURA,
this rainfall pattern encourages systems of water control
to ensure a predictable rice harvest. The early irrigation
system that developed in the dry zone is regarded as one
of the most innovative and sophisticated in the preindus-
trial world. The earliest inscriptions, dating from the third
century B.C.E., mention small-scale irrigation, and the
enlargement of the system was facilitated by the invention
of the cistern sluice, known as the hisokotuva, v\rhich regu-
lated the flow of water from a large reservoir or tank with-
out endangering weirs. One of the major early
achievements was the diversion of the Ambanganga River,
a tributary of the Mahavali, which originates in the wet
central highlands south of Anuradhapura.

The Alisara Canal, first mentioned during the reign of
King Vasabha (65-109 C.E.), flowed for about 50 kilome-
ters (30 mi.) to the capital. This king is credited with a
marked expansion of the system, including not only the
canal, but also 12 reservoirs. Between 164 and 192 C.E.
two new sorts of reservoirs are named in the inscriptions:
mahayavi (large) and danayavi (service) reservoirs. This
period saw the development of interlinked irrigation sys-
tems. During the next century and under the reign of
Mahasena (274-301 C.E.) the giant reservoir known as
Minneriya was constructed. This, together with new
canals and reservoirs representing a massive investment of
labor, put much marginal land into production. King Dha-
tusena (455—73) further added to the infrastructure of
irrigation. He had a dam constructed over the Mahavali
River to harness a greater supply of water and further
extended the irrigated area in the western part of the dry
zone. An idea of the skill of the hydraulic engineers of this
period is gained from the Kalavava reservoir. The dam
across the Kala River was made of tightly fitting blocks of
granite, the wall being more than five kilometers (3 mi.)
long and standing to a height of 12 meters. The Jayaganga
canal is 80 kilometers (48 mi.) long and carried water to
Anuradhapura as well as irrigated an area of 62,000
hectares (155,000 acres). The gradient for much of its
length involved a fall of only 10 centimeters (4 in.) per
kilometer. The Manar region in northwestern Sri Lanka is
particularly dry, and here Dhatusena had a further massive
dam constructed, with a length of 11 kilometers (6.6 mi.).
It was then linked with distribution canals that supple-
mented the water supply in numerous village tanks. Many
further dams and canals were constructed so that, by the

i62 irrigation

10th century, the system covered most of the dry zone and
the area of Rohana in the southeast of the island. In this
last region, the initiative was taken more by local commu-
nities than by the king.

The Sri Lankan irrigation system supported the great
urban center of Anuradhapura as well as the second cen-
ter of Polonnaruva and myriad rural villages. The social
correlates of this system are a vital issue in understanding
the Sri Lankan civilization of the first millennium C.E.
Was it, for example, under the central control of the
court and thus an example of overarching central power
and authority, or was it devolved to local administration
and fragmented ownership of water rights?

Some reservoirs were owned privately, by vapi-
hamikas. Others were communally owned, in some
cases by monasteries. Thus, the Alahara Canal was
granted to a monastic foundation shortly after its com-
pletion. The king was the principal owner and benefi-
ciary of the canals, reservoirs, and tanks, but they could
also be sponsored by or given to individuals. Water was
subject to tax, and a vapi-hamika was one who owned
and charged for the water passing through his facility.
Owners also received a proportion of the production
from irrigated land, known as the water share, or dak-
abaka. Entrepreneurs could take a share of profit with-
out producers being alienated from their land. This
made it possible to raise two to three crops a year in
extensive tracts. Again, the control of land improved by
major irrigation works gave rulers considerable eco-
nomic and political power.

CAMBODIA

The manipulation of water has a long history in South-
east Asia. This reflects the monsoon climate, with its
sharp contrast between the wet and the dry seasons. In
the former, there is a superabundance of water in the
lowlands, and flooding is widespread. During the latter,
months can go by without any rainfall. This pattern
encouraged communities, as they grew in size and popu-
lation numbers, to control water flows, usually by build-
ing up earthen dikes to form reservoirs. These banks ring
many large Iron Age sites, and where dated, fall within I
to 400 C.E. During the life of the states of FUNAN and
CHENLA, water was retained in rectangular reservoirs
known as BARAYS. None was large enough to have any
influence on rice production, but they could have satis-
fied domestic needs, as well as fulfilled a symbolic role as
the oceans that surround the mythical home of the Hindu
gods. With the foundation of the kingdom of ANGKOR in
about 800 C.E., the size of the barays dramatically
increased, culminating in the massive WESTERN BARAY of
SURYAVARMAN 1 (r. c. 1002-1049 C.E.) at Angkor.

Were Reservoirs Used for Irrigation?

There are two opposing schools of thought on whether
these reservoirs were constructed to irrigate rice fields.
Bernard-Philippe Groslier and Jacques Dumargay have

described Angkor as a hydraulic city in which the reser-
voirs were the source of irrigation water. They believe that
the very choice for the location of the successive cities of
Angkor was determined by the availability of water that
flowed south from the KULEN HILLS via the Puok, Siem
Reap, and Roluos Rivers. The maintenance of a city with a
population of a million or more, they claim, could have
continued only with irrigation agriculture, and therefore
its decline was at least in part due to the irrigation sys-
tem's collapse. The opposing school, which includes
Philip Stott, W J. van Liere, and Robert Acker, argues
against irrigation on technical and geographic grounds.

Despite their size and huge capacity, could the barays
have held sufficient water to have a serious impact on
rice production? And if so, how was the water reticu-
lated, for there is no surviving evidence for irrigation
canals or other distributaries, despite the abundant evi-
dence that the engineers of Angkor were adept at control-
ling water flows? Moreover, is there actually sufficient
land below the reservoirs for significant production, and
are there any insuperable impediments to the provision of
an overall irrigation system? Groslier has suggested that,
in the absence of distribution canals, a channel was exca-
vated outside and parallel with the southern dikes, which
filled with water percolating through the bank of the
reservoir. Van Liere has shown that this is technically
impossible.

Acker has given detailed consideration to the area
that could have been irrigated, the water requirement,
likely yields, and the location of the barays relative to one
another and the land below them. His calculations were
based on Groslier's estimate of a population at Angkor in
the vicinity of 1,900,000 people, of whom 600,000 were
supported by 86,000 hectares (215,000 acres) of irrigated
rice fields. In the dry season, a hectare would require
15,000 cubic meters (525,000 cu. ft.) of water. Assuming
all the major barays at Angkor were full to a depth of
three meters (9.9 ft.), they could have supplied 7,000
hectares (17,500 acres). If they yielded 1.46 tons of rice
per hectare and annual consumption was 220 kilograms
(484 lbs.) of rice per capita, the dry season yield would
have maintained about 44,500 people, about 2.5 percent
of the estimated population. This calculation is based
only on the amount of water available when the barays
were three meters deep. It does not take into account the
possibility that the barays were constantly replenished
with water from the Siem Reap River throughout the dry
season. There is also the possibility that the reservoirs
were used to supplement water supplies to the fields
when there was insufficient rainfall during the wet sea-
son. If so, then a further 9,000 metric tons (9,900 tons)
over and above anticipated wet-season production could
have been obtained, making the total irrigated yield
19,200 tons, sufficient to feed nearly 100,000 people.

These figures assume that all the barays were being
employed simultaneously, a situation possible only dur-

Ishanapura 163

ing the reign of JAYAVARMAN VII (r. 1181-1219 C.E.) and
his successors. On the other hand. Acker has shown that
the reservoirs mask one another from potentially irrigable
rice fields. Again, the Yashodharatataka (EASTERN BARAy)
could not have irrigated all the potential land below it,
because the incised Siem Reap River would have made
that system impossible.

No inscriptions that mention the reservoirs link
them with irrigation. A description of an estate at HARI-
HARALAYA cites the Indratataka as a boundary marker but
does not mention water. Another inscription describes
YASHOVARMAN I (r. 889-910 C.E.) as the husband of the
Earth, who filled it with virtue, pleasure, and fecundity,
but the ensuing mention of his baray is too damaged to
allo-w its full meaning to be obtained. His foundation
inscriptions compare Yashodharatataka to the Moon, the
source of life-sustaining ambrosia. RAJENDRAVARMAN (r.
944-68 C.E.), it is said, filled the water with his good
^vorks and made it a mirror to reflect his temple in the
middle. The Jayatataka of Jayavarman VII contained a
temple designed to wash away the sins of those who
bathed in its pools.

ZHOU DAGUAN, who visited Angkor in 1296-97,
reported that three or four crops a year could be
obtained. This does not necessarily mean that irrigation
■was in place, because there are many ways of producing
crops without it. The evidence available does not sustain
the suggestion that irrigation -was vital to the survival of
Angkor. Even today, irrigation is not widely practiced in
regions where wet-season rains are sufficient for rice cul-
tivation. This removes the failure of the irrigation system
as an explanation for the abandonment of Angkor and
enhances the likelihood that the reservoirs were essen-
tially symbolic.

MYANMAR (BURMA)

While the region of Angkor enjoyed sufficient annual
rainfall for the cultivation of rice, the PYU CIVILIZATION
(200 B. C.E. -900 C.E.) cities of Myanmar (Burma) are
located in the dry zone of the interior, -where the rain
shadow means that at the sites of HALIN and BEIKTHANO
precipitation falls to between 750 and 880 millimeters
(35.2 in.) per annum. This is insufficient alone for the
cultivation of rice. At the same time, the Irra-waddy River
that links the Pyu cities is too prone to flooding to
encourage cultivation along its floodplain. The Pyu cities
of Beikthano, Halin, and SRI KSETRA share a preference for
the tributary river valleys, where it -was possible to divert
water into canals and thence to large reservoirs. At Beik-
thano, for example, the main canal branches at an eastern
city gate to feed the moat and also to fill the -western reser-
voir in the city. There are many large reservoirs at Halin,
all fed by a major canal system. In her study of aerial pho-
tographs of these cities, Janice Stargardt has recognized
possible early field systems that could have received irri-
gation water from such reservoirs and has concluded that

the urban population relied on rice grown in irrigated
fields for survival.

Further reading: Bagley, R. W. Ancient Sichuan. Seat-
tle and Princeton: Seattle Art Museum, 2001; De Silva, K.
M. A History of Sri Lanka. London: Hurst, 1981; Hsu,
Cho-yun. Han Agriculture: The Formation of Early Chinese
Agrarian Economy. Seattle: University of Washington
Press, 1980.

Ishanapura Known today as Sambor Prei Kuk, Ishana-
pura was a major royal center in Cambodia and capital of
King ISHANAVARMAN OE CHENLA (r. c. 615-628 C.E.) dur-
ing the early seventh century C.E. A 13th-century Chi-
nese compilation incorporates a description of an early
seventh-century ruler, probably King Ishanavarman. It
describes ho-w the king gave an audience every three days
in a hall containing a wooden throne embellished with
columns of inlaid wood and fine fabrics. He wore a gold
crown and golden ear pendants. Courtiers and officials
touched the ground three times with their head below the
steps leading up to the throne. At the end of the audi-
ence, members of the court prostrated themselves.
Ishanapura has yielded one of the outstanding examples
of early Khmer art in the form of a statue of Durga 1.65
meters (5.4 ft.) in height, renowned for the natural repre-
sentation of this goddess.

Ishanapura is located in the valley of the Sen River
above the GREAT LAKE. It includes a series of three rectan-
gular enclosures demarcated by decorated brick -walls
within -which lie brick temple sanctuaries and ponds. It
was recorded in detail by Henri Parmentier, but recent
fieldwork has added to the number of temple foundations.
The layout of the central area reveals the presence of three
-walled precincts, each dominated by a large sanctuary.
These were designated the central, southern, and northern
groups. The southern group includes one principal and
five lesser sanctuaries, set within an inner wall that was in
turn enclosed by an outer enceinte measuring 300 by 270
meters (990 by 891 ft.). A further ro-w of six sanctuaries
lies -within this second enclosure, which gives access to a
causeway. The four inscriptions that have been recovered
reveal that this was a foundation of King Ishanavarman.
The northern group is also surrounded by a double -wall
with a central shrine and numerous subsidiary sanctuar-
ies. Outside the eastern gate on the outer wall, an avenue
leads to a large reservoir demarcated by earthen banks.

No INSCRIPTIONS have been found with the central
group. As do the other two, it has a central sanctuary that
was raised on a platform reached by a flight of steps.
Carved lions guard access to the immediate surrounds of
the temple terrace, the sanctuary of which measures 14
by 14 meters (42 by 42 ft.), with walls 2.8 meters (9.2 ft.)
thick. An aerial reconnaissance of Ishanapura has
revealed that the sanctuaries are set within a double-
-walled enclosure measuring two by two kilometers. The

i64 Ishanavarman of Chenla

BARAY, or reservoir, was found outside the city walls. W. J.
van Liere has considered the hydraulic system of Ishana-
pura, suggesting that it was probably designed more for
supplying the moats, religious foundations, and urban
populace than for irrigating rice fields.

Ishanavarman of Chenla (r. c. 615-637 c.e.) Isha-
navarman (protege of Siva) was a son of King Mahendra-
varman and an important figure in the history of state
formation in Cambodia. The available inscriptions reveal
that he established central control over strategic areas.
His capital at ISHANAPURA has been identified at Sanibor
Prei Kuk, and a contemporary eyewitness account indi-
cates a rich royal center with a palace, armed retainers,
and the presence of an aristocratic elite. In the far west,
he appointed his son to rule over a place named Jyestha-
pura. An INSCRIPTION relates that Narasimhagupta, the
ruler of Indrapura, was a vassal of Mahendravarman and
Ishanavarman. A local leader called Bhadrayuddha
acknowledged Ishanavarman's supremacy. The ruler of
Tamrapura recorded the overlordship of Ishanavarman,
in an inscription dated to 627 C.E. After defeating a rebel-
lious prince, Ishanavarman also claimed authority over
the settlements of Cakrankapura, Amoghapura, and a
text from the capital describes him as a king "who
extended the territory of his parents."

When he died shortly after 637 C.E., his state con-
trolled access to the sea via the Mekong and Bang Pakong
Rivers. He was succeeded by his son, Bhavavarman II.

Ishvarapura See banteay srei.

Isong Sansong Isong Sansong was a walled fortress
located in the area of Seoul, Korea. The walls covered an
area of 5.6 hectares (14 acres), and the hilltop location
linked with the natural difficulty of access makes it
highly likely that it was a strategic fortress. Its dates have
not been fully determined, but it was occupied at least
during the period of the PAEKCHE kingdom before it was
absorbed by SHILLA in the seventh century C.E. It is possi-
ble that the walls relate to the Shilla occupation of the
Han River Valley. Excavations have revealed very large
rectangular buildings within the walls, one such structure
attaining a length of 37 meters (122 ft.). There was also a
remarkable nine-sided building that might have served a

ritual function. Rituals of some sort are also suggested by
the recovery of 27 images of horses in clay and iron.

Itazuke Itazuke, a prehistoric settlement of the YAYOI
culture, located in northern Kyushu, Japan, shows evi-
dence for rice cultivation, pottery making, and weaving, as
well as stone reaping knives of a form widespread in
China. The Yayoi culture, dated from 300 B.C.E. to 300
C.E., was a vital period in the development of Japanese
states. Hitherto the Japanese archipelago had been occu-
pied by the so-called Jomon culture (10,000 B.C.E.-300
B.C.E.) of hunter-gatherers who had begun to be
acquainted with the cultivation of rice and some local
plants toward the end of this period. The Yayoi culture by
contrast was characterized by the adoption of sophisticated
methods of rice cultivation long since practiced in China,
the forging and casting of iron and bronze artifacts, a weav-
ing industry, and much evidence for increasing trade and
social complexity. Itazuke is located in the direct and early
path of any influence or immigrants from Korea. Korean
societies had been cultivating rice and interacting with
Chinese states for centuries before the development of the
Yayoi culture, and it is to be expected that they would have
had contact with the occupants of Kyushu. A long-stand-
ing question is whether Yayoi represents an actual immi-
gration of Korean colonists or the local development of
Jomon groups under Korean influence.

When Itazuke was discovered in 1918, mainland
bronze swords and halberds were found there. Excava-
tions since 1949 have uncovered the remains of an early
Yayoi community with evidence for the cultivation and
storage of rice and the manufacture of pottery vessels in
the vicinity of rice husks, some of which adhered to the
wet clay before firing to leave impressions. There were
also spindle whorls, an innovation revealing a weaving
industry. The site was ringed by a ditch up to 1.5 meters
deep and 4.5 meters (4.9 by 14.85 ft.) across, associated
with two other ditches that might have been designed for
the control of water flows or for defense. Sharp cut marks
on the side suggest that metal tools were used, though
none have survived. The Yayoi ceramics and the stone
projectile points are similar to those of the Jomon occu-
pation phase, indicating that even if there were some
immigrants from the mainland at the beginning of the
Yayoi period, the area's preceding inhabitants remained.

Jainism Jainism is an Indian religion with about 3 mil-
lion adherents. Followers observe five principles: celibacy,
truthfulness, rejection of personal possessions, pacifism,
and absence of theft. Jain temples are occasionally
encountered in early historic cities, but this religion has
never received the same world following as BUDDHISM, nor
has it rivaled Hinduism at home in INDIA. Nevertheless, it
has survived in India, and it is recorded that Mahatma
Gandhi was much influenced by the ascetic qualities of
Jainism. Believers look on Vardhamana Mahavira (sixth
century B.C.E.), the great hero, as the most recent leader of
their religion, -which is at least as old as Buddhism. In fact,
Mahavira was numbered the 24th leader, or Tirthankara,
of the Jains. He was born in Vaisali, and in many respects
his early life resembles that of his near contemporary, the
Buddha, for he too left his home and spent several years
■wandering the Ganges (Ganga) Valley in search for salva-
tion. He also found enlightenment -when aged 42 and
became what was known as a jina, or conqueror. This
name was applied to the religion as a whole. After preach-
ing his doctrine and founding an order of monks, he died
at the age of 72 years at the village of Pava, near ancient
PATALIPUTRA.

Jainism benefited greatly from royal patronage,
specifically that of CANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (c. 325-297
B.C.E.), who reputedly became a Jain monk himself. Dur-
ing his reign, a schism divided the Jains into t-wo sects.
This followed a migration away from the Jain homeland
by some monks -who anticipated a famine. Others stayed
behind, and when the migrants returned, they found that
their coreligionists had adopted unacceptable customs,
such as the wearing of -white robes where the norm was
nakedness. This schism endures to this day.

See also MAURYA EMPIRE.

Further reading: Dundas, P. The Jains. Library of
Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge, 2002;
Parikh, V. Jainism and the New Spirituality. Milan: Peace
Publications, 2002; Tobias, M. Life Force: The World of
Jainism. Paris: J'ai lu Editions, 2000.

Jalilpur Jalilpur is a site of the Early Harappan or
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION, located near the Ravi River in
Pakistan. It covers an area of 13 hectares (32.5 acres).
Excavations directed by M. R. Mughal in 1971 uncovered
evidence for two phases of occupation. The earlier
yielded many bone artifacts and ceramics, but no evi-
dence for copper -working. The later included pottery of
the KOT DIJI phase of the Early Harappan, together with
human figurines, shell and EAIENCE bangles, and beads of
agate and carnelian. Cattle bones dominate in the faunal
assemblage, followed by domestic sheep and goats.

janapada Janapada is an Indian term for a state -with a
capital, sustaining area, and political boundaries. It
derives from the -word jana, "tribe." Janapadas developed
in the Ganges (Ganga) Valley during the sixth to fourth
centuries B.C.E., and oral traditions record their names.
However, endemic rivalries and conflict reduced their
number by absorption, and by about 350 B.C.E. the state
of MAGADHA ruled most of northern India. Much informa-
tion on the janapadas and their participation in trade can
be obtained from the silver punch-marked coins that
■were issued from at least 500 B.C.E.

Jandial temple The Jandial temple is situated on an
eminence about 600 meters (1,980 ft.) to the north of the
northern gate at Sirkap, the second city of TAXILA in Pak-

165

i66 Jataka tales

istan. Sirkap was built by BACTRIAN GREEKS and was a laid
out on a precise grid plan. Excavations revealed a classi-
cal Greek temple. SIR JOHN MARSHALL excavated the tem-
ple between 1913 to 1934 after a preliminary
examination by SIR ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM in 1863-64
revealed wall foundations. This late structure was
removed, and a further two meters down Marshall traced
the plan of a Greek temple that incorporated sandstone
Ionic columns. It is 47.5 meters (156.7 ft.) long and 25.5
meters (74.2 ft.) wide. Marshall compared its plan, -which
included a front porch (pronaos) , a sanctuary (naos), and
a back porch (opisthodomos), with the temple of Artemis
at Ephesus and the Parthenon in Athens and concluded
that the temple dates to the period of Greek dominance at
Taxila. Even the methods of construction, seen in the
joining of the parts of the Ionic columns, with a central
dowel were typically Greek. Philostratus (c. 170-245
C.E.) may -well have been describing this very temple in
his Life of Apollonius when he wrote that waiting for
admittance to the city, he sa-w a temple in shell-like stone,
bearing bronze panels on the walls recording events in
the conquests of ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

Jataka tales Jataka tales are a series of Indian stories
that describe events in the lives of the Buddha before he
attained enlightenment. The Jataka stories often contain a
moral and are the inspiration behind themes depicted on
Buddhist temples and monasteries. The reliefs at SANCHI
and BHARUT and the frescoes in the AJANTA caves illustrate
many Jataka stories. The popularity of the Jatakas is well
illustrated at the MOGAO caves near DUNHUANG, where a
famous incident is depicted: The future Buddha has the
equivalent -weight of his own flesh cut off to save the life
of a dove. There are 547 Jataka stories, and it is thought
that Prince Mahendra took them to Sri Lanka in the third
century B.C.E. Each story has three parts. After an intro-
duction, the Buddha describes his experiences in previ-
ous lives, when he was a BODHISATTVA. Sometimes he
took the form of a king or a hermit, but on other occa-
sions he was portrayed as a monkey, horse, or elephant.
Finally, the story details the companions of the Buddha
during his previous lives. On many occasions, the Jakata
tales describe people and places that can be identified
historically and throw light on life in India during the
time of the JANAPADAS, or early states, in the Ganges
(Ganga) Valley. The 256th story, known as the farudap ana
fataka, sa-w the future Buddha as a caravan guide during
the time of King Brahmadatta of Varanasi (formerly
Benares). The caravan was made up of merchants with a
variety of goods carried on carts. Being thirsty in their
travels, they dug a well, but they found only jewels. The
bodhisattva advised them to stop digging, but they greed-
ily continued until they disturbed the king of the naga, or
snakes. He blew poisonous air on them, and they all died,
except the bodhisattva.

Jaugada Jaugada is a city located on the bank of the
Rishikulya River in Orissa province, eastern INDIA. It is
particularly -well known as the location of a rock edict
inscribed during the reign of ASOKA (268-235 B.C.E.), the
Mauryan emperor, -which was addressed to the people of
Samapa, presumably the early name of the site. Excava-
tions in 1956—57 revealed that the massive mud ram-
parts, -which enclosed an area of about 65 hectares (162.5
ft.), -were more than 20 meters (66 ft.) -wide and still
stood almost five meters (16.5 ft.) high. The interior
incorporated structures made of stone and brick, and
occupation, according to the recovery of coins, lasted
into the KUSHAN period.

See also MAURYA EMPIRE.

Jayaksetrasiva See wat baset.

Jayatataka The Jayatataka was an immense BARAY, or
reservoir, constructed at ANGKOR in Cambodia during the
reign of JAYAVARMAN VII (r. 1181-1219 C.E.), but now dry.
Its outline is easily seen from the air. There was an island
temple at its center, known today as NEAK PLAN. Accord-
ing to the INSCRIPTIONS, the complex -was a representation
of the sacred LAKE ANAVATAPTA. This lake, located north of
the Himalayas, was held in Buddhist writings and prac-
tice to have magical powers. It was the origin of four
great rivers, the Amu Dar'ya, Tariin, Indus, and Ganges
(Ganga), and its water, cooled by protective mountains
that shielded it from sun and rain, was used in royal con-
secration ceremonies under Emperor ASOKA (268-235
B.C.E.) of the MAURYA EMPIRE dynasty in India. It was
thought to bestow divinity on the sovereign. Queen
Maya, mother of the Buddha, was bathed there to purify
her before she was dressed in sacred clothes and flowers.
Anavatapta water was taken daily to the court of Asoka
for his own use and for that of his most holy followers.
The Neak Pean temple in the center of the Jayatataka
incorporates four stone images — a horse, a lion, an ox,
and an elephant — on each side. The water in the central
pool gushes through their mouths in a precise match for
the way the Lake Anavatapta -water emerges from the lake
so that the temple was certainly a source for purification
and ritual ablutions. Thus those traveling to the temple
and bathing in its sacred \vater could wash a-way the
slime of their sins. Such an interpretation for the purpose
of the Angkorian barays runs counter to the more mun-
dane supposition that they were constructed to supply
irrigation -water to rice fields.
See also BUDDHISM.

Jayavarman I of Chenla (c. 635-680 c.e.) Jayavarman
1 was a ruler whose royal ancestry can he traced back
through his great-grandfather, lshana\arman of Chenla
(877—99 C.E.), to the earliest recorded kings of one of the
major polities of Chenla.

Jayavarman III 167

CHENLA is the name in Chinese texts of a state that con-
trolled Cambodia between 550 and 800 C.E. A close anal-
ysis of the available INSCRIPTIONS, in conjunction with
archaeological evidence, suggests that this was a period of
state formation, in which there was a series of competing
polities. There is a consistent thread of evidence for the
formation of a centralized state in Cambodia well before
the foundation of the kingdom of ANGKOR. Jayavarman's
inscriptions, which are found over a relatively wide area
including the lowlands bordering the Mekong River and
the GREAT LAKE and thence west into Battambang, provide
evidence for the tightening of central povi'er and control
through the appointment of ministers with a range of
new titles. Through this administrative structure, the
ruler issued edicts on land ownership and the collection
of revenue in the form of goods and labor. One text also
describes Jayavarman as the conqueror of the circle of his
enemies, and another records his campaigning in
autumn, when his enemy's moats were dry. "Innumerable
vassal kings," he claimed, obeyed his commands. In com-
bat, he was "a living incarnation of victory, the scourge of
his enemies, lord of the land inherited from his ancestors,
and conqueror of yet more lands." The king appointed
the author of another inscription as his rajasabhapadi, or
president of the royal court, and allowed him to use a
white parasol and a golden vase. Jayavarman also issued a
rajna, or legal edict, confirming the ownership of temple
property, and warning "that those who contest the king's
orders, will be punished."

New official titles are informative of the duties of the
ruling aristocracy. One family held the priestly position of
hotar. A member was made a mahasvaphadi and was given
the governorship of a place called Sresthapura. His
younger brother was successively officer of the royal guard,
custodian of royal regalia, and chief of the rowers; finally,
by order of the king, he was given a substantial military
command. There were a samantagajapadi, chief of the royal
elephants, and a dhanyakarapadi, chief of the royal grain
stores. A further inscription, probably from this reign,
specified the quantities of salt to be distributed by barge to
various foundations and prohibited the imposition of tax
on the ships that transported this vital commodity.

Jayavarman II (c. 770-834 c.e.) Jayavarman U was
revered as the sovereign who founded the kingdom of Angkor
in the early ninth century C.E.

INSCRIPTIONS show that he engaged in much warfare but
also was responsible for founding several temples. Two
sources of evidence illuminate his reign and achieve-
ments. The first involves the inscriptions set up when he
was alive and those that describe him as a historic,
founding figure. The second is the evidence of archaeol-
ogy. Two contemporary inscriptions suggest that he was
living at or near the huge walled city of BANTEAY PREI
NOKOR, east of the Mekong River, ruling during the last
two decades of the eighth century C.E. The next inscrip-

tion describes his dedicating a foundation to the north, in
the region of the independent polity of Sambhupura. It
describes Jayavarman as king of the Earth surrounded by
the ocean. The inscription of SDOK KAK THOM, dated 260
years later than the event, describes how Jayavarman
returned from Java to rule in the holy city of INDRAPURA.
This is more likely to reflect a skirmish against the neigh-
boring CHAM CIVILIZATION than a sojourn in distant Java
in Indonesia. The inscription records that the king
ordered Shivakaivalya, ancestor of the family of Sdok Kak
Thom, to move himself, family, and followers to a place
probably in the vicinity of Angkor.

According to a second inscription, these early years
saw much warfare, for he evidently ordered Prthivinaren-
dra, an official known as a mratan, to pacify all districts.
Jayavarman rewarded his generals with land grants: An
inscription from Thvar Kdei in Kompong Thom province,
dated 150 years after these events, records how the king
endowed land to vap Jataveda; vap was a new honorific
title. He also granted land to one of his wives. Jayavar-
man established himself at HARIHARALAYA on the northern
margin of the Great Lake. However, he moved his capital
on several occasions, for we next find him at Amarendra-
pura, which was probably at the western end of the WEST-
ERN BARAY of Angkor.

A later move took him to the KULEN HILLS, described
in the inscriptions as Mahendraparvata, Mountain of the
Great INDRA, where he had himself consecrated the
supreme king of kings, in the presence of an image of
SIVA that was named KAMRATENG JAGAT TA RAJA, or
DEVARAJA, "the god who is king." There would henceforth
be only one "lord of the lower Earth" who would be the
CHAKRAVARTIN, or universal overlord. Finally, Jayavarman

II returned to Hariharalaya, where he died in about 835
C.E. In terms of archaeology, it is likely that Banteay Prei
Nokor, the temple of Trapheang Phong at Hariharalaya,
AK YUM at BANTEAY CHOEU, and Rong Chen on the Kulen
uplands date from his reign. Only archaeological excava-
tions and the fortuitous discovery of more inscriptions
can add further information about a king revered as the
founder of the kingdom even 250 years after his death.

Jayavarman III (r. 834-877 c.e.) Jayavarman 111, son of
Jayavarman 11 (c. 770—834 c.e.), was the second king of the
first dynasty of Angkor in Cambodia. Little is known about
his life and achievements.

An INSCRIPTION from just north of Siem Reap ascribes the
foundation of a temple to the year in which Jayavarman

III ascended the throne. The text describes how, after the
king failed to capture a wild elephant while hunting, a
divinity promised to secure the animal if the king built a
sanctuary there. Some other temples are known to date to
the reign of Jayavarman III, indicating continuing interest
in the region of Angkor. Due north of AK YUM, but on the
opposite side of the WESTERN BARAY, lies the temple of
Prasat Kok Po. An inscription records the erection of a

i68 Jayavarman IV

statue of Vishnu here by Prithivindrapandita, a guru of
the king, in 857. Jayavarman III may also have initiated
the construction of the BAKONG at HARIHARALAYA. He was
succeeded by INDRAVARMAN I (877-99 C.E.)-

Jayavarman IV (r. 928-942 c.e.) King Jayavarman IV
of Angkor in Cambodia is often described as a usurper who
established an alternative capital at Lingapura, now known
as Koh Ker

In fact, he was the son of King INDRAVARMAN I's (877-899
C.E.) daughter, Mahendradevi, and was married to his aunt,
who was a half-sister of King YASHOVARMAN I (r. 889-910
C.E.). According to the loose rules governing the succes-
sion, therefore, he had a legitimate claim through the
proper female line, even if he seems to have claimed king-
ship while the sons of Yashovarman continued to rule from
Angkor. Jayavarman IV must have been a very energetic,
even charismatic, ruler, because he founded and had con-
structed a new capital center on a huge scale. Lingapura
was a -walled city 1,200 meters square (1,440 sq. yds.),
enclosing an inner walled precinct containing the state tem-
ple complex, known as Prasat Thom. The sacred precinct
within houses the principal temple pyramid, raised on
seven tiers of descending size. He also constructed a BARAY
that involved digging out the rocky substrate. Lingapura is
surrounded by a series of subsidiary temples covering an
area of 35 square kilometers (14 sq. mi.).

Some of the satellite temples at Lingapura contain
exhaustive lists of the workers assigned to the construc-
tion of the capital. These inscriptions describe how con-
struction -was based on the mobilization of labor from
many provinces, and taxation in kind, particularly rice,
was levied to sustain workers. Provincial inscriptions also
suggest that the king had a broad hold over the kingdom.
One describes Jayavarman IV as a great warrior, who
ruined his enemy on the field of battle; another called
him king of Cambodia: "Fierce in battle, this King's
arrows cloud the sky and fill the eyes of his arrogant ene-
mies with the darkness of the night." Punishment
awaited those who disobeyed a royal edict: They would
be caged by the elders of the district and placed before
the king for sentence.

Jayavarman V (r. 968-1001 c.e.) Jayavarman V suc-
ceeded his father, Rajendravarman (r 944—68 C.E.), as king
of Angkor in Cambodia when only 10 years old.
High court officials dominated his first years, but by the
time he was 17 his state temple, known as Hemasringa-
giri, or the Mountain -with Golden Summits, was under
construction at ANGKOR. Now known as Ta Keo, it was
never completed but is of grandiose size. One of the
young king's advisers, Yajnavaraha, -was responsible for
the foundation of the temple of BANTEAY SREl northeast of
the capital. Jayavarman's INSCRIPTIONS are concentrated in
the good agricultural lands to the north and west of the

TONLE SAP, east to the Mekong River, and then south
toward the upper delta. Unusually, his reign appears to
have been relatively peaceful, and his inscriptions reveal
the maintenance of large estates by the aristocracy and
the meritorious donation of gifts to the gods. One text
also describes how the king, -when aged 16, founded t-wo
religious corporations -with rights to land holding, inheri-
tance, and exemption from taxes.

Jayavarman VI (r. 1080-1107 c.e.) King Jayavarman
VI of Angkor in Cambodia was a usurper who was a mem-
ber of the aristocratic Mahidharapura lineage of the upper
Mun Valley in Thailand.

In about 1080, Divakarapandita, -who had participated in
the consecration of UDAYADITYAVARMAN It's (r. 1050-66
C.E.) golden LINGAM at the BAPHUON and who held a high
court position during the next three reigns, crowned him.
Jayavarman VI made no attempt to relate his ancestry to
previous rulers at Angkor. His father was a local poten-
tate in a border region to the north\vest, beyond the Dang
Raek range. A later INSCRIPTION from PHNOM RUNG names
Hiranyavarman and Hiranyalakshmi as parents of
Jayavarman VI.

See also CHAM CIVILIZATION.

Kushans The Kushan empire (c. 78-200 C.E.)
extended from Central Asia into India and was ruled by a
dynasty of god kings. It had relatively peaceful condi-

tions, and trade linking China with the Mediterranean
flourished. It ■was also a period in which agricultural pro-
duction responded, in the dry conditions that prevailed
over much of the territory, to the establishment of IRRIGA-
TION facilities. Major canals and the expansion of agricul-
ture in the Amu Dar'ya, Tashkent, and Samarqand oasis
regions led to the foundation of new urban settlements.
One of the developments closely linked to, and in many
respect dependent on improved agriculture was the
expansion in the number and size of cities. Kushan cities
were usually well fortified with surrounding walls and
regularly spaced to\vers, and many also incorporated an
inner defended citadel. They often succeeded BACTRIAN
GREEK foundations and foUo^wed the existing regular
street layout. Contemporary Indian texts illuminate the
degree of craft and guild specialization during this
period, and although no documentary evidence for guilds
applies to the Kushan cities, it has been noted in excava-
tions that specific manufacturing tasks were spatially lim-
ited. Some specialized output entered the widespread
trade network.

This exchange was facilitated by the Kushan mone-
tary system. The Kushan empire provided a stabilizing
influence on the trade and politics of northern India,
Pakistan, and TRANSOXLANA from the first to the third
century C.E., but thereafter it rapidly declined. The rising
powers included the SASSANLAN EMPIRE and the KIDARITE
HUNS, the latter to succumb to the HEPHTHALITE HUNs.

KUSHAN HISTORY

The Kushans originated in western China and moved
■west with population pressure to settle south of the Aral
Sea in northern Afghanistan and Tajikistan in the late sec-
ond century B.C.E. They ■were known to the Chinese as
the Yuechi and were united under the ruler KUJULA KAD-
PHISES (30-80 C.E.). He expanded his dominion to the
south, taking the region of Kabul south of the Hindu
Kush, and established the Kushan dynasty in 78 C.E. His
son, Vima I Tak [to] (r. 80-90 C.E.), and grandson, VIMA
KADPHISES (r. 90-100 C.E.), continued this southward
push, taking most of the Punjab and the upper Ganges
(Ganga) Valley. This resulted in the formation of an
empire from the Amu Dar'ya River to the Ganges. Much
historical information is derived from the Kushans' intro-
duction of gold COINAGE. Thus Vima Kadphises named
himself mahesvara, or the lord SIVA. His successor and
son was King KANISHKA I, who ruled from Purusapura
(Peshawar in Pakistan) from about 100 to 126 C.E. His
coins depict him with a halo as a divine figure, and he
took the title de\aputra, "son of god." Kanishka also insti-
tuted the so-called Saka era of dating, which originated in
78 C.E. An inscription from RABATAK in Afghanistan lists
his main cities, including PATALIPUTRA, former capital of
the MAURYA EMPIRE in the Ganges Valley. A devoted Bud-
dhist ■who expanded the Kushan empire, he had a huge
stupa constructed over sacred Buddhist relics at

190 Kushans

Peshawar. At TAXILA, the Kushans founded the third city
at SIRSUKH. Kanishka was succeeded by Huvishka
(126-164 C.E.). He too was titled deyaputra, and he sup-
ported the arts, particularly the Mathura school. He was
followed by Vasudeva (164-200 C.E.), but by now the
Kushan empire was in decline in the face of expansion
from Sassanian Persia, losing control over BACTRIA and
becoming increasingly assimilated.

IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURE

The Zang canal, originating in the Surkhan Dar'ya, led to
increased prosperity for the inhabitants of ZAR-TEPE. Irri-
gation works in the Zerafshan Valley, according to A. R.
Mukhamedjanov, put 3,500 square kilometers (1,400 sq.
mi.) under irrigation. A vast area was irrigated in
Khvs^arizm, the region centered on the lower reaches of
the Amu Dar'ya just south of the Aral Sea. Here a fully
integrated system of major canals taking water from the
river and feeding minor distributaries was established.
One such canal was more than 90 kilometers (54 mi.)
long and involved the removal of more than 222 million
cubic meters (7.7 billion cu. ft.) of fill. Such agricultural
improvements in the broad riverine floodplains were
accompanied by parallel intensification in the piedmont
areas. There small dams restrained the flow of mountain
streams in the head-waters of the Zerafshan, and the -water
was fed into a series of terraced fields. Tunnels and aque-
ducts augmented such systems.

Agriculture -was further intensified with the develop-
ment of iron implements and the widespread use of the
ox-drawn plow. A -wide variety of crops has been identi-
fied on the evidence of archaeological remains. The prin-
cipal grains were barley, millet, and wheat. Apricots,
peaches, plums, and melons were also favored, and cot-
ton supplied the local cloth industry. Viticulture, how-
ever, was one of the most intriguing developments. The
terraced vineyards, grape pips, and Chinese records dis-
close the extent of wine production and trade in
Khwarizm south to the EERGHANA Valley. The breeding of
horses and raising of cattle, camels, sheep, and goats -were
integrated with the widespread agriculture.

KUSHAN CITIES

At Taxila, the Greek city of SIRKAP was taken over by the
Kushans with its main street, lanes, homes, and shops
intact, but they then founded a new city nearby at Sir-
sukh, about which little is known through a lack of exca-
vation. BEGRAM (ancient Kapisa) is located north of Kabul
in Afghanistan, and limited excavations there have
revealed the walled city with its palaces, fortifications, and
a notable treasury containing magnificent Indian ivories,
Chinese lacquerware, and Roman glass and statuary.
North of the Hindu Kush, there was a large net-work of
cities, notably at DALVERZIN TEPE in south Uzbekistan,
where the Bactrian Greek city was embellished with opu-

lent houses, Kushan statues, paintings, and craft work-
shops. A hoard of gold ornaments was found there
beneath a doorstep of a fine city residence. TOPRAK-KALA
in Kh-warizm was laid out in symmetrical city precincts
and incorporated a sumptuous palace for the ruler. The
cities also included craft workshops or industrial facilities
for the production of iron and bronze tools, weapons, and
ornaments; manufacture of textiles; grinding of grain; and
production of ceramics. Merchants often had a quarter of
their o-wn, as seen in the excavations of Begram.

KUSHAN COINAGE

The earliest Kushan coins copied issues of the later Bac-
trian Greek kings Eucratides and Heliocles and date to
the period 125-50 B.C.E. More specifically, Kushan coins
can be traced to the rule of King Vima Kadphises and
show the king on one side and a god on the other, com-
monly the god SIVA. The text on the coins was usually in
Bactrian, with the Kushan derivative of Greek script.
Gold coins were used in major exchanges, bronze for
day-to-day transactions. Outlying provinces of the
Kushan empire appear, on the basis of their coinage, to
have been semi-independent. Thus the coins issued in
Khwarizm, dominating the lower Amu Dar'ya south of
the Aral Sea, were of local inspiration. Bukhara and Mar-
giana also had their own local mints.

KUSHAN RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

It is intriguing to note that in the religious sphere the
Kushans encountered both an established Greek pan-
theon on reaching Bactria and increasing influence from
India as they reached south of the Hindu Kush. Syn-
cretism of Greek and Indian traditions is seen in the
COINAGE of Kujula Kadphises. He described himself with
the Indian term maharaja rajatiraja, the "great king, king
of kings," but had a Greek god portrayed on the other
side. A marked interest in Siva is to be seen in the
coinage of Vima Kadphises. Kanishka I, on the other
hand, showed a preference for Iranian gods, but this did
not exclude the use of the Buddha by either Kanishka or
his successors.

KUSHAN TRADE

The quickening of trade along the SILK ROAD, given impe-
tus by the unification of China under the QIN and HAN
dynasties, gave the Kushan rulers the opportunity to
enrich themselves and support a flourishing period of
artistic and architectural creativity. Trade also created
contact with both East and West, and both influenced
and were in turn influenced by Kushan artistic traditions.
The sculptures of the King's Hall at Dalverzin-tepe are a
good example of this trend, while the AIRTAM friezes fall
within the period of Kushan dominance.

Some idea of the wealth that the trade along the Silk
Road produced for the Kushans can be gained from the

Kyanzittha 191

royal burials excavated at TILLYA-TEPE in northern
Afghanistan. In 1978-79, excavations uncovered six
graves, thought to represent a prince accompanied by five
women aged between 18 and 30 years at death. The buri-
als date, on the basis of associated coins, to the period
25-50 C.E., and were associated with more than 20,000
gold ornaments. These included headdresses, torques,
plaques, and seals worn at the belt. There were also gold
and silver scepters, and the heads of the dead lay in gold
bowls. By minutely examining the location of these orna-
ments, it was possible to reconstruct the costumes in
which the dead were buried. The wear on the gold orna-
ments showed that they had been worn over a lengthy
period during life. The man wore a belted tunic and
trousers. Women's wear included a variety of hats orna-
mented with gold, trousers, and a skirt or tunic. Some
tunics opened at the front, others were enclosed, but all
were heavily ornamented with golden plaques.

Further reading: Gupta, P. L. Kusana Coins and His-
tory. Columbia Mo.: South Asia Books, 1994; Litvinsky, B.
A. "Cities and Urban Life in the Kushan Kingdom." In
History of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. 2, edited
by J. Harmatta. Paris: UNESCO, 1994; Mani, B. R. The
Kushan Ciyilization: Studies in Urban Development and
Material Culture. Delhi, B. R. Publishing Corporation,
1987; Yatsenko, S. A. "The Costume of the Yuech-
Chihs/Kushans and Its Analogies to the East and to the
West," Silk Road Archaeology 1 (2001): 73-120.

Kusinagara Kusinagara is a central place in the history
of BUDDHISM, because the Buddha died just outside the city.
It is located on the northern margin of the Ganges (Ganga)
Plain and was the center of a ]ANA?ADA, or small polity, in
pre-Mauryan times. The site has naturally attracted many
pilgrims, and several large monasteries were built there.
This most holy site was on the itinerary of XUANZANG, a
Chinese Buddhist monk and pilgrim who traveled widely

in India in the early seventh century C.E. To reach Kusina-
gara, he said, he had to pass through a dangerous forest
full of wild cattle and elephants and robbers. He found on
reaching the city that it lay in ruins, the streets and lanes
deserted. He crossed the river to the grove of trees where
the Buddha died and found there a temple with a statue of
the Buddha lying down in the position of entering nirvana
and an adjacent stupa standing 60 meters (198 ft.) high
built, he said, by King ASOKA (268-235 B.C.E.).

These buildings, the Mahaparinirvana monastery,
and associated nirvana stupa probably did originate with
the reign of Asoka in the third century B.C.E. A relic cas-
ket retrieved from the stupa, dates from at least the reign
of the Gupta king KUMARGUPTA I (415-55 C.E.). It con-
tained one of his gold coins and a cowry shell, together
with a dedicatory INSCRIPTION. Excavations undertaken at
this temple in 1911 to 1912 uncovered sealings with the
name Mahipari Nirvana, leaving little doubt as to the
original name of this monastery.

See also BUDDHISM.

194 lapis lazuli

Further reading: Csikszentmihalyi, M., and P. J.
Ivanhoe, eds. Religious and Philosophical Aspects of the
Laozi- SUNY Series in Chinese Philosophy and CuUure.
New York: State University of Ne-w York, 1999; Ivanhoe,
P. J. The Daodejing of Laozi- New York: Seven Bridges
Press, 2002.

lapis lazuli Lapiz lazuh is a deep blue stone valued as
a source of raw material for manufacturing jewelry. The
world's best source is in Badakhshan in Afghanistan,
where four mines have been discovered at an altitude of
between 2,000 to 5,500 meters (6,600 to 18,150 ft.). One
at Sar-i-Sang is still being exploited. The output was so
valued by the people of the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
that Shortugai, a trading outpost, was established in this
region. According to Sumerian texts, lapis lazuli was
obtained by trade with the people of Meluhha, indicating
that the Indus civilization was a source for a material that
was used in Sumer not only for jewelry, but also for deco-
ration of temples. Lapis lazuli beads have been found in
many pre-, early, and mature Harappan sites, including
JHUKAR, KALIBANGAN, CHANHU-DARO, and AMRI.
See also HARAPPA.

Lauriya-Nandangarh Lauriya-Nandangarh takes its
name from the word laur, "pillar," for it is the location
of one of Emperor ASOKA's (268-235 B.C.E.) columns. It
is located in northern Bihar province, India. The col-
umn itself is one of only two that survive undamaged
and in their original position (the other is that at
Basarh). Inscriptions on the column record six of
Asoka's edicts dating to the 27th year of his reign. The
lion at the top is one of the best of all those surviving
and was carved in the act of roaring. Three rows of stu-
pas associated with the column, one stupa among the
largest known, are a dominant feature of this site. Some
were examined by SIR ARTHUR CUNNINGHAM and others
during the late 19th century.

One stupa yielded a votive deposit of gold leaf and a
female figurine in association with cremated bone. These
are paralleled in similar stupas at Piprawa and probably
date to the last centuries B.C.E. Excavations at the mound
of Nandangarh, which commenced in 1935, revealed that
it had been a colossal stupa still standing to a height of 25
meters (82.5 ft.). It would have been one of the largest
known in India. The core of the stupa contained coins
and sealings of first- or second-century B.C.E. date, so the
stupa itself must be later than these items. Explorations
of the inner core revealed a miniature stupa, beside which
lay a copper vessel containing a BIRCH BARK SCROLL dated
stylistically to the fourth century C.E.

Legalism Legalism refers to the school of thought in
China that developed during the WARRING STATES PERIOD
(480-221 B.C.E.). During this period, endemic warfare

between a diminishing number of independent states
resulted in the ultimate victory of the state of QIN. It was
in this atmosphere of increasing militarism and competi-
tion that the policy of centralized bureaucratic power over
the individual was promulgated, a policy that ran counter
to the influential teachings of CONFUCIUS and MENCIUS.
SHANG YANG (d. 338 B.C.E.) was one of the proponents of
Fajia, as Legalism was known at the time. He was the
principal minister in the state of Qin during the fourth
century B.C.E. His thoughts are well represented in the
Shangjun shu (The Book of Lord Shang). He advocated a
single-minded autocracy with all power vested in the
king. All policies would be based on an impartial legal
code determined on the basis of ensuring the strength and
survival of the state. Agriculture was to be fostered, but
academic pursuits would wither as an act of policy. This
policy reached its nadir with the burning of the books and
the execution of scholars under the Qin, the dynasty that
put legalism into practice with most rigor and enthusi-
asm. The Shangjun shu set out the vital importance of
intelligence under 13 headings. These particularly stressed
figures on the stores of grain, numbers of men able to
fight, number of horses, and availability of fodder. The
text continues in a mode of state totalitarianism. Music,
history, goodness, and righteousness are described as par-
asites on the state. What matters above all is knowledge of
statistics. What is available to support the army? How can
taxes most benefit the central authority?

Until the triumph of Qin, Legalism had been more a
theoretical than a practical construct. However, the unifi-
cation of China under the first emperor, QIN SHIHUANGDI,
in 221 B.C.E. led to the appointment of Li Si as the first
minister of the new state. He was then able to put the
totalitarian theory into practice across the entire country.
Old frontiers were dismantled, and former states were
replaced by new provinces, or commanderies. Uniform
weights, measures, and writing were imposed, and large
groups of workers were deployed on massive building
projects, not least the first major construction of the
GREAT WALL of China. The seeds of destruction of Legalist
principles, however, lay in the very centrality of the exer-
cise of power. When the first emperor died, a Byzantine
series of secret palace intrigues by top officials, including
Li Si, led to the end of the Qin dynasty.

Leigudun The tomb of zeng hou yi (d. c. 433 b.c.e.),
marquis of Zeng, was opened in 1978. The site is located
in Hubei province and is dated to the late fifth century
B.C.E. The marquis ruled Zeng, a small client state of the
mighty CHU kingdom. For the first time in Chinese his-
tory, the tomb was divided into chambers to represent a
palace. Small portals in the double coffin and the walls
were put in place to allow the marquis's soul to roam at
will through his subterranean realm. The central chamber
was designed as the ceremonial palace hall. It contained

Lelgudun 195

bronze vessels and musical instruments for state occa-
sions. The magnificence of the bronze grave goods can be
judged by their total weight — almost 10 tons of metal —
and their individual size. No tomb anywhere matches this
quantity. The most remarkable of all the finds are the two
complete coffins, one nested within the other, both intri-
cately painted. One of the mortuary offerings in the tomb
was a bell cast, according to its inscription, in the 56th
year of the reign of King Xiong Zhang of CHU (r. 488-432
B.C.E.). It has been suggested that it was cast in 433 B.C.E.
to record the marquis's death, but this is not established.

Pride of place among the bronzes must be accorded
the ziin and the pan. The former has been described as
"unrivaled by any metalwork from the ancient world."
Both were made first by the traditional piece-mold sys-
tem, incorporating a newly developed modification
known as the pattern-block technique. Other parts of the
vessels were cast by means of the lost-wax method. Deco-
rative embellishments, most in the form of dragons and
mythical serpents, were individually cast and then
attached to the vessel -with solder of tin and lead with a
small admixture of copper. The inscription on the pan
records that it was cast for Marquis Yu, probably the
father of Marquis Yi. These items are outrageously com-
plex and innovative and reveal the inventive expertise of
the Chu bronze specialists.

The tomb was contained in a pit 13 meters deep (43
ft.). A wooden structure of massive timbers measuring
19.7 by 15.7 meters (65 by 51.81 ft.) and with a ceiling
height of 3.3 meters -was encased in layers of charcoal and
wet clay below a layer of stones. This design led to the
survival of a -wide range of organic grave goods that
■would not survive under normal conditions. Among the
metalwork are, for example, 65 bells and hundreds of
vessels. The bells were cast with inscriptions indicating
their tone, which in one of the sets covered more than
t-wo octaves. The marquis clearly enjoyed music, because
his tomb has furnished a veritable treasure trove of
instruments representing a full orchestra: seven zithers,
chime stones, mouth organs, flutes, drums, and panpipes.
A bronze crane -with antlers standing nearly 1.5 meters
(about 5 ft.) high was used to support a drum. It is most
unfortunate that no musical scores have survived to allow
scholars to appreciate the full nature of music of the
period. There was, however, a distinction between the
court music produced by the full orchestra represented
by this assemblage and that preferred in the marquis's pri-
vate quarters, for a further chamber in the tomb con-
tained another assemblage of five large and two small
zithers, a drum, and two mouth organs.

BURIAL CHAMBER

A smaller compartment contained his weapons, chariot,
and the marquis himself, together with eight of his ser-
vants. Largely because of the covering coat of LACQUER,
the coffins have survived with little deterioration over

2,500 years. The outer coffin is unique in being built of
wood -with a bronze framework. It is in the form of a box,
3.2 meters (10.5 ft.) long and just over two meters high
and wide. The bronze frame took the form of 10 upright
sections cast with a rectangular support, over the top of
which a second frame was attached. The inner coffin was
2.5 meters (8.2 ft.) long and 1.32 meters (4.3 ft.) high.
The outer walls are curved outv^rard to form a convex
cross section. Both coffins vi'ere covered with intricate
painted designs. One finds a complex series of animal
motifs on the innermost, incorporating dragons, birds,
hybrid half-human-half-animal creations, and snakes.
One of the most intriguing of the geometric designs was
found on the ends and the sides: a rectangular form
thought to represent doors and windows. The outermost
■was ornamented -with a series of geometric motifs and
lacks the animal or human figures. The marquis himself
lay within the inner coffin. A man who died in his early
40s, he wore silk clothing and jade and gold ornaments,
including four gold belt hooks. A jade pendant in the
form of a dagger lay at his waist. It was made of five tabs
linked by metal clips and had formerly been covered in
silk, for impressions of silken fabric remained on the
metal components. A lidded gold bowl and spoon had
been placed under the coffin and would surely have been
for the marquis's personal use. The spoon had perfora-
tions, suggesting that it was used to drain fluid from a
meat or grain dish. The bowl was cast by the same tech-
nique as bronze production and was decorated with drag-
ons and spiral designs.

SUBSIDIARY BURIALS

The eight other coffins in this area held his concubines,
aged from about 13 to 24 years -when they accompanied
their master into the grave. There were also clothes chests,
gold vessels, lacquerware, and a table laid out with spindle
■whorls still -wrapped around with silk threads.

The northern room of the palace contained the mar-
quis's weaponry, including lacquered leather armor, hal-
berds, spears, and bo-ws and arrows. One remarkable
■weapon was made of three halberds and a spear that with
the wooden haft was 3.25 meters (10.7 ft.) long. It would
have been used from a chariot. The recovery of 12 suits
of armor greatly increased the appreciation of its form
and manufacture. It was made of leather plates reinforced
with lacquer, reaching to the midthigh region. A broad
flaring collar protected the neck, and the sleeves were
made flexible by joining thin lengths of horizontally ori-
ented leather strips. The helmets were made of similar
lacquered leather, the top piece in the form of a crest.

The BAMBOO SLIPS in this chamber listed the mourners
at the funeral and the inventory of grave contents. The
former was dominated by members of the Chu elite. In
the western chamber, the excavators found the remains of
13 WOMEN, presumed to have been servants in the court,
together with some of their personal possessions. In no

196 Leitai

way rivaling the items associated with the marquis, there
were some fine objects, such as a lacquered box in the
form of a duck with a movable head. This piece is particu-
larly interesting because decorative panels on the side
show musicians. One person is seen striking a chime bell.
The details reveal that the two bells were suspended from
a pole held by birds confronting each other, while the
musician holds a long mallet to one side. A second lateral
pole under the bells supported a pair of chime stones. A
second panel depicts a person beating a drum vi'ith a
drumstick in each hand. The drum is supported on a
stand matching those found in the tomb, while a warrior
is dancing to the rhythm.

COURT FEASTING

The intact tomb allowed a penetrating insight into the
etiquette of court feasting. One large ding, a tripod vessel
57 centimeters (22.8 in.) high, was found with the two
hooks used to hoist it over the heat and the ladle that dis-
pensed the cooked meat or fish. The set of eight gui ves-
sels indicates that the marquis had very high status, for
this number was traditionally the prerogative of the Zhou
emperor himself. They are fine bronzes inlaid with
TURQUOISE.

Further reading: Thote, A. "The Double Coffin of
Leigudun Tomb No. 1: Iconographic Sources and Related
Problems." In New Perspectives on Chu Culture during the
Eastern Zhou Period, edited by T. Lawton. Washington,
D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1991.

Leitai Leitai is a site located just south of the GREAT
WATL of China in Wuwei county, Gansu. Discovered in
1969, it is a tomb dating to the Eastern HAN DYNASTY
(25-220 C.E.). The burial is most famous for a bronze

This bronze horse comes from the tomb of a high-ranking
official at Leitai in western China. Dating to the Eastern Han
dynasty (25-220 C.E.), the galloping horse has one hoof on a
flying swallow. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)

model of a galloping horse supported by only its rear
hind leg with its tail trailing behind, atop a swallow in
full flight. The tomb contained the remains of a very
high-ranking mandarin in this strategic border area.
Inscriptions on some of the bronzes, which included 14
bronze chariots, 17 horses, and 45 bronze statuettes of
chariot drivers and retainers, describe him as a governor.
His seals in the tomb name him a general. The 17 horses
formed a procession, with the famous flying horse repre-
senting the dead general's mount prominently placed.
One horse wore a saddlecloth of two pieces of sheet
bronze in which were engraved images of the horse itself.
One particularly fine item is a single bronze horse har-
nessed to a two-wheeled carriage, each wheel having 10
spokes. The driver is shaded by a parasol. The emphasis
on horses in the elite tomb is a reflection of their impor-
tance in the military affairs of the northern border. Ma
Yuan, a renowned general, noted that "horses are the
foundation of military might, the great resource of the
state."

The tomb has three chambers, each with a ceiling in
the form of lotus flowers. It is thought that lotuses were
an auspicious symbol for protection against fire.

Lelang Lelang was a major Chinese commandery, or
province, in northern Korea, founded after the Han Chi-
nese subjugation of the preceding state of CHOSON in 108
B.C.E. Excavations at one site revealed a fortress of the
governor, an official mint, and many Han objects, as well
as a cemetery ■with more than 2,000 burials. At another
site was a unique and wealthy burial of a local Han digni-
tary. Trade linked Lelang to China and Japan.

HAN SUBJUGATION

After the WARRING STATES PERIOD (475-221 B.C.E.) in
China and the establishment of the long HAN DYNASTY,
the Han court adopted a policy of expansion whereby
border chiefdoms and small states were defeated and con-
verted into provinces of the empire. To the south, DIAN
and DONG SON chiefs were thus incorporated as comman-
deries with centrally appointed governors answerable to
the emperor. To the northeast, the sprawling state of
Choson was divided into four provinces. The Chinese
occupation of the Korean peninsula endured for approxi-
mately four centuries, during which the local elites were
accorded Chinese titles and administrative functions. The
HANSHU history recorded that the Lelang commandery
had 25 counties, with a combined population of slightly
more than 400,000 people.

T'OSONG-NI SITE

In 1934 three seasons of excavations commenced at the
site of t'osong-NI, a defended site on the southern bank
of the Taedong River opposite Pyongyang. This walled
fortress covers an area of 31 hectares (77.5 acres), and
excavations have uncovered a wide range of artifacts that

Lewan 197

relate to the Han occupation of this region and the estab-
Ushment of the Lelang commandery. Foremost are the
SEALS and seahngs that reveal the presence of the actual
governor of Lelang at this site. There are also ceramic
eave tiles, inscribed with the title liguan, a Chinese offi-
cial responsible for rituals, education, divination, and
music. There are not only Chinese Han coins, but also
coin molds, indicating the presence of an official mint.
Other Han artifacts include bronze mirrors, belt buckles,
and arrowheads. More than 2,000 burials have been
found beyond the walled precinct of this site. About a
third were wooden chambers that contained the coffin
with a compartment for mortuary offerings. The balance
were constructed of BRICK, although there were one or
two unique interments. Chestnut trees were employed in
the wooden tomb structures to line the sides and roof of
the chamber, and on numerous occasions, men and
WOMEN, presumably affinally related, were buried
together.

SOKKAM-NI SITE

The unique Burial 9 from the site of Sokkam-ni, 25 kilo-
meters (15 mi.) south of the Taedong River, was investi-
gated after its discovery in 1916. The floor of the
mortuary chamber and the walls enclosing the chestnut-
wood coffin were constructed of stones, including pieces
of jade. After the wooden ceiling was put in place, the
tomb was sealed with a layer of coal. This burial was
found intact, and the grave goods reflect the wealth of the
local Han magnates. Eleven ceramic vessels were
included, each containing food: shellfish, meat, fish, and
sauces. He was accompanied by a range of iron
weaponry: a crossbow, dagger, swords, spearheads, and
halberds. The presence of iron sickles reveals a local
interest in agriculture. This person's chariot was repre-
sented in the grave by decorated axle components, while
gilt bronze frontlets for horses and two bridles were also
found. Fine LACQUER tables, trays, and food vessels had
been placed for the use of the dead, as well as bronze ves-
sels, mirrors, and jades, including a seal and a l)i disk.
There is no doubting the wealth of the Han elite of
Lelang. The disposition of the ornaments in a black lac-
quer coffin indicates that the tomb master was buried
with his eyes, ears, and mouth filled with jade stoppers,
and a jade rod had been placed in his anus. This was a
Han practice also seen in the burial of Liu Sheng at
Mancheng. His clothes were held in place with a gold belt
buckle, and he had a jade ring in his hands. Brick tombs
were found with between one and three chambers. They
were built above ground, sealed after burial was com-
plete, and covered with an earthen mound. A compart-
ment within was reserved for placement of mortuary
offerings.

TRADE

One of the recurrent aspects of the Lelang politics was
trade with China. Luxury goods, jades, seals of office.

and fine fabrics found their way to Lelang, and some
ended up in elite tombs of the period. One fine lacquer
bowl manufactured in 69 C.E. reached Lelang from the
distant southwest Chinese province of Sichuan. In
return, timber, iron, fish, and salt were sent to China.
Lelang was also an important node in an exchange net-
work that linked China through Korea to Japan. How-
ever, the vitality of trade depended on political stability
in China, and during the WANG MANG (45 B. C.E. -23 C.E.)
interregnum and the troubles that followed the end of
the Eastern Han dynasty and formation of the three
kingdoms, Lelang suffered instability. It finally came to
an end vi'ith defeat by the rising power of KOGURYU in
313 C.E. The Chinese then left their Korean colonies,
just as they were later to leave northern Vietnam.

Leshan Leshan is located on the eastern side of the
Min River in Sichuan province, China. The Min flows
south to join the Chang (Yangtze) River. More than 1,000
cliff tombs have been identified there, dating to the East-
ern HAN DYNASTY (25-220 C.E.). Many of them were orna-
mented with carvings on stone, as well as INSCRIPTIONS.
These have been divided into early (76-146 C.E.), middle
(147-189 C.E.), and late periods (190-240 C.E.). The cor-
pus of carvings covers a wide range of themes centering
on the notion of loyalty and filial piety. This finding con-
firms the deep-seated adoption of Confucian ethics
among the SHU and BA people during this period. These
tombs, which penetrate far into the cliffs, must once have
contained a vast number of other items. In 1990, for
example, a series of stone statues was found in one cave,
including a horse, dog, hen, and human figures. One
attendant in this group stands more than a meter high.
See also CONFUCIUS.

Lewan Lewan is a prehistoric site located in the Bannu
Basin of northwestern Pakistan. It had an area of 14.5
hectares (36.2 acres) and formerly lay adjacent to the
River Tochi, which has since changed its course.

Lewan, and many sites on the same plain that super-
ficially resemble it, is important in linking the developing
Indus civilization with the communities on its piedmont
margins that supplied regional products for exchange.
Lewan was clearly a manufacturing site for a range of
stone artifacts, but bead manufacture also took place
there, and a sealing on clay from the latest phase of occu-
pation is probably the remains of a SEAL on a storeroom
or a consignment of goods.

Deflation had removed some of the uppermost
deposits at Lewan, leaving a thick layer of stone artifacts
lying on the surface. Excavations in 1978-79 were on a

198 Liang Dynasty, History of the

small scale. They encountered the remains of hut founda-
tions, together with a large sample of pottery remains,
ceramic figurines of humans and animals, and stone
beads. The pottery included vessels decorated with fish
painted in -white on a red background, goats, and buffalo
horns linked with sets of three pipal leaves. These allow
the sequence at the settlement to be related to the better
kno-wn site of Rehman Dheri and date its occupation
from about 3500 until 1900 B.C.E. The buffalo with pipal-
leaf motif, \vhich resembles designs found on INDUS VAL-
LEY CIVILIZATION seals, places the site in the orbit of the
lowland Indus sites.

Liang Dynasty, History of the The History of the
Liang Dynasty of China (502-556 C.E.) is a major docu-
mentary source for information on Southeast Asia during
the early centuries of the Common Era.

Liangzhu culture For many years, research on the ori-
gins of Chinese civilization has concentrated in the cen-
tral plains of the Huang (Yellow) River Valley, where the
LONGSHAN CULTURE was seen as the progenitor of the
state. Since the first discovery of relevant sites in 1936, it
has become clear that the Chang (Yangtze) Valley was
equally important to growing cultural complexity in
China. The Liangzhu culture sites, of which more than
300 are known, are located in the marshy, lacustrine low-
lands flanking the lower valley of the Chang River.
Already by 5000 B.C.E., rice-farming communities were
widely established around Lake Taihu, and the people of
the Majiabang culture were making je-welry items of jade.
Their successor was the Liangzhu culture, which flour-
ished from about 3200 to 2000 B.C.E. It was an extremely
complex and rich society, based on irrigated rice agricul-
ture linked -with the raising of domestic stock, hunting,
and fishing. Agricultural tools were made of stone, for no
knowledge of metal had yet reached this part of China.
Other craft industries included jade working, basketry,
silk weaving, and the manufacture of fine ceramics. From
the mid-third millennium B.C.E., craft workers lacquered
wood to produce lacquerware. While many Liangzhu
graves are relatively poor in terms of grave offerings, a
few special sites incorporate tombs of considerable
wealth and distinction. The Liangzhu culture thus takes
its place, along with the HONGSHAN CULTURE of Liaoning
province and Longshan groups of the central plains, as a
forerunner of early Chinese civilization.

TYPICAL SITES

The typical Liangzhu community chose to live beside
rivers, and the recovery of the remains of wooden boats
and oars indicates proficiency with "watercraft. The site of
Longnan has provided the remains of a wooden pier and
an embankment for flood protection along the river mar-
gin. At Qianshanyang, houses were raised on wooden

piles against possible flooding, but sites on higher ground
included semisubterranean houses roofed with thatch.

SOCIAL COMPLEXITY

This economy under-wrote an increasingly complex and
ranked social system. Some sites grew to a considerable
size. Mojiashan, for example, covered about 30 hectares
(75 acres) and incorporated stamped-earth platforms
and storage pits. At SIDUN, Liangzhu remains spread over
an area of 90 hectares (225 acres) ringed by a broad
series of moats. This site included a number of rich
inhumation graves associated with fine jades and pottery
vessels. One of the best examples of elite burials is the
site of Fuquanshan, an artificial mound of just less than
one hectare, which was reserved for rich interments. The
dead were inhumed in hollowed tree-trunk coffins, asso-
ciated with numerous jade artifacts, which included cer-
emonial axes, hairpins, bead necklaces, and belt hooks.
Some burials also held the skeletons of what seem to
have been sacrificial victims. The mortuary rituals
included the use of altars as foci for burning, and burnt
slabs of clay vi^ere placed over the graves.

GRAVE DISCOVERIES

At Fanshan, 11 tombs have been investigated in a raised
mound of earth 3.5 meters (11.5 ft.) high and covering
an area 88 by 28 meters (290 by 92.4 ft.). A similar raised
necropolis at YAOSHAN was encircled by a t\vo-meter-wide
moat and a U-shaped platform. T-welve tombs in this
mound held double wooden coffins and many offerings.
Jade was of particular importance to the Liangzhu elite
and was made into a range of ritual and ceremonial items
that persisted in subsequent Chinese cultures. They
include bi disks, cong cylinders, decorated plaques,
bracelets, and beads. The discovery of a jade -workshop at
Mopandun reveals that the jades were locally manufac-
tured by sophisticated techniques, including use of drill
bits, rotating \vheel saws, and fine quartz sand for final
polishing. The source of Liangzhu jade has not been
identified.

Li gui The Li gui is a bronze vessel cast by a person
named Li after the defeat of the last king of China's Shang
dynasty (1766-1045 B.C.E.) by the Zhou. It was discov-
ered at Lintong in Shaanxi province in 1976 and is one of
the most important of the growing corpus of WESTERN
ZHOU DYNASTY bronze texts cast into ceremonial vessels.
The documentary evidence confirms and expands on sur-
viving literary texts describing the BATTLE OE MUYE,
which is thought to have taken place in 1045 B.C.E. It
describes a divination ceremony on the morning of the
battle and the victory of Zhou forces under KING WU on
the evening of the same day. A week later, the king con-
gratulated and blessed Li, who it seems -was the person
who made the divination predicting a victory.

lingam 199

Li Ji (1896-1979) Li Ji was the archaeologist in charge of
excavations at Anyang after the initial season of work under
Dong Zuohin.

In 1929 he planned to undertake trial excavations to test
the size of the site at Xiaotun and investigate its potential.
He found two major early layers, one dating to the late
Shang period (1766-1045 B.C.E.), which yielded 685
pieces of inscribed ORACLE BONES, the divinatory records
of the Shang kings. This level lay under graves of the Sui
(581-618 C.E.) and Tang (618-917 C.E.) dynasties.
Arguably the crowning achievement occurred in the last
season before the outbreak of the war in 1937, when his
team found a complete archive of royal divinations in the
royal palace area together with a group of chariot burials.

Having completed a detailed contour plan of the area
bet-ween the village at Xiaotun and the Huan River, he
identified two raised mounds, and in November 1929 he
proceeded to carry out extensive excavations to identify
the nature of the deposits. The results defied the most opti-
mistic hopes. His excavation proceeded through 11 layers
to a depth of 3.3 meters (10.98 ft.), where he discovered a
circular pit adjacent to a second pit of rectangular form.
The former was two meters across and three meters deep.
At the base, Li Ji found a cache of inscribed bones and tor-
toiseshells. Again, the associated finds were of profound
interest, for he collected molds for casting bronzes, carved
ivories, and a rich collection of glazed ceramics.

In 1930 Li Ji was appointed a professor in the Institute
of History and Philology at the Academia Sinica. In his
next season at Xiaotun the site -was divided into five areas
for intensive large-scale excavation. Further oracle bones
were recovered, as was a store of animal bones, including
the remains of whales and elephants. He also recovered
more molds for bronze casting. At the same time, surveys
■were undertaken in the adjacent areas bordering the Huan
River to seek further sites. One result was the discovery
that Xiaotun was not the only site to yield oracle texts.
Under Li Ji's overall direction, excavations continued until
the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese war in 1937. He was
responsible for the opening of the royal Shang graves at
Anyang. Although they had been robbed in antiquity of
their treasures, he -was able to identify their enormous size,
method of construction, and form and, in certain cases, to
find bronzes and jades left behind or overlooked by tomb
robbers. He then moved the surviving members of his
team and the precious finds to remote Kunming in Yun-
nan, to begin the task of analysis and publication. This
resulted in the establishment of the dynastic succession of
kings at Anyang, together with their reign dates. After the
Second World War, the Academia Sinica moved to Tai-wan,
■where major reports on the excavations of Anyang, under
the aegis of Li Ji, were published.

Lijiashan Lijiashan is a royal necropolis of the Dian
people, located on a hill that dominates Lake Xingyunhu

in Yunnan province, China. Excavations in 1972 uncov-
ered 27 graves of great wealth, dating to the last two cen-
turies B.C.E. The DIAN CHIEFDOM grew in power in the
face of HAN DYNASTY imperial expansion but was finally
absorbed in the Chinese empire. At Lijiashan, it is possi-
ble to measure the growing -wealth of the ruling elite. A
ro-w of seven graves stands out on the basis of mortuary
wealth. The grave goods found in a wooden coffin in
Burial 24 include a ceremonial bronze staff and a mass of
bronze -weaponry — a svi'ord, spears, arrowheads, a mace,
and a battle ax. There is also decorated bronze armor.
Feasting is represented by bronze wine containers and a
ladle; t\vo drums contained cowry shells, symbols of
wealth. No bones survive, but a bronze headrest and ro-ws
of jade and agate beads make it clear -where the body
■would have lain. Perhaps the most spectacular of the
items in this grave is a sacrificial table or altar in the form
of two cattle and a leaping tiger, which is 76 centimeters
(30.4 in.) in length. Burial 17 contrasts -with this warrior's
grave. It also contains a bronze headrest, but the place of
weaponry is taken by decorated bronze weaving imple-
ments. Such tools in this and other graves suggest that
the -wealthy interments contained aristocratic men and
WOMEN. The drums of the Dian chiefdom were highly
decorated and reveal the presence of war vessels that
would have plied the lake and facilitated central control
over the rich lacustrine rice soils. Scenes of the storage
and distribution of rice likewise stress the importance of
agricultural surpluses in the maintenance of the ruling
elite.

Lijiazui See panlongcheng.

lingam A lingam is a phallic symbol associated with
the Hindu god SIVA in his guise as the god of fertility. The
lingam assumed great significance in Cambodia, where
stone lingams, some of -which would have been gilded,
-were placed in temples as objects of veneration and ritual
■worship. In due course, a lingam also represented the
essence of the king and took a central place in the royal
temple mausolea. Lingams are found as offerings in cre-
mation burials at NEN CHUA, dated to 400-600 C.E. In
association -with the yoni, representing female genitalia,
they were placed in CHENLA temples. According to
GEORGES CCEDES, the essence of the king was contained in
a lingam on a temple mountain, which -was located in
center of the realm and therefore of the cosmos. This
supernatural lingam, the phallic symbol of Siva, was
passed via a Brahman to JAYAVARMAN II (c. 770-834 C.E.)
on Mount Mahendraparvata. INDRAVARMAN I (877-899
C.E.) established the lingam Indresvara on the BAKONG,
and YASHOVARMAN I (r. 889-910 C.E.) established YASOD-
HARESVARA on the BAKHENG temple. An inscription from
Lovek dating to the reign of Harshavarman III described
how UDAYADITYAVARMAN II (r. 1050-66 C.E.) erected a gold

200 Lingapura

mountain, vying with the abode of the gods. On the sum-
mit he consecrated a golden hngam. In the Prah Nok
inscription, General Sangrama endowed this lingam,
which incorporated the essence of the king, with the
spoils of war. The temple of Prasat Damrei at KOH KER
mentions the erection of an enormous lingam by JAYAVAR-
MAN IV (r. 928-942 C.E.). On his return to Yashodhara-
pura, RAJENDRAVARMAN (r. 944-968 C.E.) had the temple
of PRE RUP constructed. The foundation inscription
described the image as Isvara Rajendravarmesvara, a
lingam combining the names of the king and SIVA.

Lingapura See koh ker.

Lingdi (156-189 C.E.) Lingdi (clever emperor) was the
11th emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty of China.
He was the great-great-grandson of Emperor ZHANGDI and
acceded to the throne in 168 C.E. Lingdi was one of the
fe-w later Eastern Han emperors to live long enough to
achieve a reign of any sort. The death of his predecessor,
HUANDI (132-168), had left the empire without a clear
path to the succession, and the dowager empress was
enjoined to identify a person who would fulfill the neces-
sary genealogical requirements. She called together a con-
clave of influential people representing the major factions
to consider the alternatives. The final choice fell upon an
11-year-old boy called Liu Hong, the marquis of a fief,
who had no prior experience of the court or life in the
capital but whose great-great-grandfather had been the
emperor Zhangdi. There followed the customary bid for
titles, status, and ultimately power by the various families
representing the former court of Huandi and Lingdi's own
followers, as well as the corps of eunuchs in the palace.
This resulted in the hatching of a plot to murder the
eunuchs, led by a minister named Dao Wu. The plot was
discovered, and the eunuchs took the royal SEALS from
the dowager empress and sequestered her without influ-
ence, for they did not trust her to protect them. Then
they marshaled their forces against those of Dao Wu and
were able to persuade sufficient soldiers to follow their
party; the death of Dao Wu and the reaffirmation of the
eunuchs' power in LUOYANG followed. There resulted the
beginning of the end for the Eastern Han dynasty.

REBELLIONS AND CORRUPTION

The now all-powerful eunuchs gave their relatives and
supporters positions of status and authority. Despite
attempts to reduce their power, they continued to domi-
nate the court. However, the overall administrative
machine began to break down as the sale of offices and
corruption took increasing hold, and without sufficient
revenue the central relief agencies could not assist the
provinces affected by agricultural failures. This led to dis-
turbances, most clearly seen in the "magic rebellion" of
172 C.E. and the uprising of the so-called YELLOW TUR-

BANS in 184 C.E. The rebellion raged in southern China.
The Yellow Turbans formed as a result of the teachings of
Zhang Jue. He organized cells of followers with his pre-
diction that the time was nigh for the replacement of the
dynasty. This was predicted on the basis of a 60-year
cycle with the next year of the cycle commencing in 184
C.E. The uprising began across 16 commanderies, timed
to begin simultaneously. With limited success, the central
army was deployed to counter this threat, but, as a brush-
fire, the uprising recurred in different forms. Some histo-
rians maintain that the Yellow Turban movement was
responsible for the ultimate fall of the dynasty, but the
role of peasant revolts, fashionable in modern Communist
historic writings, could well have been overemphasized.

Despite such insurrections, the corruption and open
sale of government posts continued. In the office known
as the Western Quarters, the rich could purchase ministe-
rial posts and the governorships of commanderies. Natu-
rally, these people sought a return on their investment,
and this practice resulted in further corruption and extor-
tion. When Lingdi died in 189 C.E. the effective rule of
the Han dynasty also came to an end, although the
dynasty itself survived until 220 C.E.

Ling yi During the WESTERN ZHOU DYNASTY (1045-771
B.C.E.) in China, ritual bronze vessels were cast in a wide
variety of forms. Many bore INSCRIPTIONS recording the
circumstances under which they were cast. Often the ves-
sels were given by the king to a high official in recogni-
tion of services rendered to the court. The corpus of
inscriptions is one of the key sources for reconstructing
Western Zhou history. In 1929 a large number of such
vessels were robbed from a Western Zhou grave outside
LUOYANG, among which was the Ling yi. This bronze has
one of the longest inscriptions dating to the period of the
early Western Zhou dynasty. In respect to historic con-
tent, it describes in general terms the appointinent of
administrative officials and proceeds to describe how one
Ling was given wine, metal, and a small ox. He then had
the yi cast. The balance of evidence points to a date in the
reign of King Zhou (977-957 B.C.E.).

Linjia Linjia is a site in Gansu province, northwest
China, belonging to the Majiayao phase of the late YANG-
SHAO CULTURE. It dates to about 3000 B.C.E. Its signifi-
cance lies in the fact that a bronze knife found there in
one of many underground storage pits is the earliest cast-
bronze artifact discovered in China. This presents an
anomaly, because its skillful casting in a double mold,
involving alloying of copper and tin, is almost 1,000
years earlier than the next dated bronzes in this region.
The origins of the Gansu and the Chinese bronze-working
tradition are thought to lie in the West. The expansion of
people and the spread of ideas along the course of the

Liu Sheng 201

future SILK ROAD would have introduced the knowledge
of alloying and casting.

Lin-yi Lin-yi is the name given in Chinese records of the
second to mid-fifth centuries C.E. to a polity lying to the
south of Chinese provinces in the Hong (Red) River delta
of Vietnam. The records describe a pattern of border con-
flict and friction that culminated in 446 C.E. with a major
punitive raid. The people of Lin-yi were Cham speakers
centered on the fertile river plain of the region of Hue.
See also CHAM CIVILIZATION.

Linzi The city of Linzi in Shandong province, China,
was the capital of the state of QI, one of the major states
that emerged during the Western and EASTERN ZHOU
DYNASTIES. Many seasons of archaeological research make
Linzi one of the best-known cities occupied at a time when
urban life was in a period of rapid development. In
essence, this period witnessed the rise of an urban society
involving artisans and merchants, as well as a considerable
expansion in the size of the enclosed area at Linzi. The ear-
lier of the two walled cities, founded during the WESTERN
ZHOU DYNASTY (1045-771 B.C.E.), covered an area of
approximately 1,720 hectares (4,300 acres). Its interior
was dominated by a series of broad streets, up to 20 meters
(66 ft.) wide, laid out on a grid pattern. The richest part of
the interior was probably the northeastern sector, where a
number of fine ritual bronze vessels have been recovered.
There was also a cemetery containing tombs dating from
the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 B.C.E.) to the
WARRING STATES PERIOD (475-221 B.C.E.). One of the tombs
in this area, while looted, displayed considerable wealth;
the surrounding pits contained the remains of 600 horses.
It is thought to have been constructed for Qi Jing Gong,
who ruled Qi from 547 to 490 B.C.E.

The smaller city, constructed during the Warring
States period, covered an area of about 300 hectares (750
acres). It was adjacent to the southwestern corner of the
old city and may well have been constructed after the
replacement of the old ruling family of Jiang by the
usurping ministerial lineage of Tian. Its defenses are most
solid on that part of the enclosure facing inward to the
old city rather than to the outside, which suggests inter-
nal discord. There are palace foundations in the northern
part of the new city as well as bronze and iron workshops
and a mint. About 500 meters (1,650 ft.) south of Linzi, a
very large tomb has been examined, under a mound 10
meters (33 ft.) in height. Although looted, it still con-
tained individual chambered pits for 17 young WOMEN
and nine further sacrificial victims who had been decapi-
tated or otherwise mutilated.

Liuchengqiao Tomb 1 at Liuchengqiao in China is a
particularly notable CHU grave dating to the late Spring

and Autumn (770-476 B.C.E.) or early WARRING STATES
PERIOD (475 to 221 B.C.E.). It was discovered in 1971 and
contained the remains of a military leader, if the number
of weapons found within is any guide. The tomb had a
vertical shaft seven meters (23 ft.) in depth, at the base of
which were two double chambers and three nested
wooden coffins. The coffins were covered in a layer of
white clay to keep out air and moisture, and this arrange-
ment led to the preservation of vi'ood, LACQUER, and silk
grave goods. The outermost coffin was fashioned from
cypress planks held together with bronze nails in a zigzag
pattern. The middle coffin was also made of wood neatly
linked by mortise and tenon joints and secured with
bronze nails, while the innermost coffin was painted
black on the exterior and red within. A smaller coffin,
possibly containing a sacrificial victim, was found in the
corner of one chamber. The lacquerware includes a fine
quiver still holding arrows, a drum, a table, and tomb
guardians. Arguably the earliest example of a zither was
also found. There are many ceramic vessels, jades, and
fragments of silk, including one of the oldest examples
known. The tomb master was interred vi'ith chariot trap-
pings, and his weapons are of particular interest, because
they seem to include a set used in chariot warfare. There
are 93 weapons in all, including bronze swords, ex-
amples of the ko, or ax halberd; the mao, or thrusting
spear, and the ji, which is a combination of both. The
wooden hafts have survived, and these range up to 3.12
meters (10.2 ft.) in length. Such extremely long weapons
are documented as being specific to chariot warfare.
There is also a collection of three different types of
arrows, some for long-distance shooting; other, heavier
examples for piercing leather armor. The surviving bows
were made of bamboo.

Liu Ji See GAOzu.

Liujiahe Liujiahe, an archaeological site just to the east
of Beijing in China, is notable as one of the most
northerly sites to yield material remains that can be
referred to the SHANG STATE (1766-1045 B.C.E.). A burial
was excavated and found to contain bronze vessels and a
bronze ax with a blade fashioned from meteoric, or natu-
ral, iron. The remains of bronze horse trappings and
chariot components are particularly interesting, as they
represent one of the earliest such finds in China. Jade,
gold, and TURQUOISE ornaments complete the rich mortu-
ary offerings from this tomb.

Liu Sheng (d. c. 113 B.C.E.) Liu Sheng was the brother of
the Western Han emperor Wudi (157—87 B.C.E.).
Liu Sheng's tomb at MANCHENG was discovered and exca-
vated in 1968 and revealed for the first time two complete
mortuary suits of jade wafers joined by gold thread, hith-
erto known only from documentary references. Such suits

202 Liu Taiyun

The jade suit of Princess Dou Wan, wife of Prince Liu Sheng
of the Western Han royal family. It was discovered at
Mancheng, China, in 1 958. Jade was used to encase the royal
dead, anticipating that it would preserve the body. (©Asian
Art & Archaeology, Inc./CORBIS)

were reserved for the highest members of the royal family
and were held to suppress the decomposition of the body.
See also HAN DYNASTY.

Liu Taiyun Liu Taiyun was one of the pioneers in the col-
lection and study of the ancient Chinese texts on oracle
hones from Anyang in China.

During the early years of the 20th century, he collabo-
rated with Wang Yiyong in saving these priceless records
from drug dealers who powdered and used ORACLE BONES
as medicine. He inherited Wang Yiyong's collection when
the latter committed suicide in 1900, and he proceeded
to assemble at least 5,588 records. In 1903 he published
1,058 fragments in the first scholarly study of the records
of the Shang kings of ANYANG.
See also SHANG STATE.

Liu Xiu (d. 55 B.C.e) Liu Xiu, Prince Huai of Zhongshan,
was an aristocrat of the Chinese Western Han dynasty.
He was interred in a tomb at Bajiaolang, Hebei province.
Although his tomb was looted, his jade suit has survived,
despite being burned. It was made of 1,203 wafers of
jade, sewn together with gold thread that weighs 2.56
kilograms (5.6 lbs.). This is one of the rare surviving
suits. Jade was held to provide immortality. Others are
known from MANCHENG and the tomb of Zhao Mo, also
known as Wen Di (r. 137—122 B.C.E.), whose intact tomb
has been found at Xianggang in Guangzhou (Canton).
See also YUE.

Lolei The temple of Lolei is located on what was an
island in the Jayatataka reservoir at HARIHARALAYA, Cam-
bodia. This center was a major capital of the dynasty of
JAYAVARMAN II (c. 770-834 C.E.) from the late eighth cen-

tury C.E. until the foundation of YASHODHARAFURA. King
YASHOVARMAN I (r. 889-910 C.E.) had the shrines con-
structed to commemorate his parents, and it was conse-
crated on 8 July 893 C.E.

Lomasa Rishi Lomasa Rishi, one of the earliest ROCK
MONASTERIES of India, is located in the Barabar Hills of
Bihar. These were built for Buddhist worship from the
third century B.C.E. , and most are concentrated in the
western Deccan. The sanctuary of Lomasa Rishi has a
narrow entrance, and the caitya shrine within runs paral-
lel with the rock face. This portal was decorated with a
frieze of carved elephants and makaras, mythical sea
monsters. It probably dates to about 250 B.C.E.
See also BUDDHISM.

Longshan culture The Longshan culture of the Huang
(Yellow) River Valley in China has local roots in the
Dawenkou and the YANGSHAO CULTURES. It dates between
about 2500 and 1800 B.C.E. and is a crucial period because
many of the Longshan sites reveal trends that anticipate
the development of the first civilizations in the area. The
Longshan communities that commanded the Huang River
Valley and Shandong Peninsula reveal a quickening of
social complexity. Archaeologically, this is manifested in
defensive walls, rich burial assemblages, the adoption of
metallurgy, and an increase in artifacts associated vi'ith
armed conflict. Jades and bronzes, which were to reflect
high social distinction for millennia to come, made their
first appearance. The quality of the jades and ceramics is
consistent with the establishment of craft specialization.

This development of defended settlements and craft
specialization was rooted in a long preceding Neolithic
period in which stamped-earth enclosures and growing
settlement sizes were already beginning to appear by the
end of the fourth millennium B.C.E. During the Longshan
culture, certain well-placed communities grew further in
size and commanded sufficient resources to construct large
walls and platforms for elite buildings. Extensively exca-
vated cemeteries, such as TAOSI, provide evidence for sharp
social distinctions. This trend was accompanied by a grow-
ing density of sites and a sharp rise in population. Growth
took place at a time of increasing evidence for violence and
warfare. More weapons were manufactured, and some sites
reveal evidence for the disposal of men who had been
severely handled. Long-distance trade in exotic valuables
was a further major development. There are four distinct
regional foci for Longshan, extending from Shaanxi
province in the vi'est through Shanxi and Henan to Shan-
dong in the east. Associated trends toward social stratifica-
tion and the development of states, although not named
Longshan, have been identified during the third millen-
nium B.C.E. in the Chang (Yangtze) Valley from Sichuan to
Hunan of Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces.

Longshan culture 203

LONGSHAN SITES

The site of CHENGZI is located in the southern part of the
Shandong Peninsula; excavations have revealed a cemetery
in which graves were now increasingly distinguished on
the basis of mortuary wealth and spatial differentiation
between rich and poor. Five rich interments of a sample of
87 graves were equipped with a ledge to display lavish
offerings, including elegant tall-stemmed cups and the jaw-
bones of pigs, presumably sacrificed as part of the mortu-
ary ritual. The poorest graves, which were in the majority,
however, had no ledges and fewer mortuary offerings.

CHENGZIYAI is situated on the right bank of the lower
Huang River in Shandong province. It is particularly
important because of the discovery there of 16 fragments
of inscribed ORACLE BONES, dating to 2500-1900 B.C.E.
These provide evidence for divination and an early sys-
tem of writing in Longshan contexts. At DINGGONG,
another site of the Longshan culture in Shandong
province, there is early evidence for writing in the form
of graphs on pottery vessels. It also provides evidence for
domestic structures and the sacrifice of adults and chil-
dren, whose remains have been found in the foundations
of buildings. BIANXIANWANG has two stamped-earth
enclosures and again has yielded the remains of sacrificial
victims in the wall foundations. JINGYANGGANG is one of
the largest Longshan centers in Dawenkou, with an area
of about 38 hectares (95 acres). Early graphs have also
been found on potsherds at this site.

Pingliangtai, located south of the Huang River in
Henan province, offers a further and highly significant
innovation in the middle reaches of the Huang River, in
the provision of defensive stamped-earth walls. These
enclosed a relatively small area of five hectares (12.5
acres), but inner walls were located around a citadel 185
meters square (222 sq. yds.). The outer walls were
equipped with gateways; the interior contained house
foundations and a drainage system. One of the pits in the
site contained a trace of copper residue, and a piece of
bronze was recovered. As in Shandong, some of the pottery
shards had scratched written graphs. Hougang and
Wangchenggang, in the same province, also incorporate
walls, those at the latter site enclosing an area of rather less
than a hectare. Stamped-earth foundations in the defended
area were probably the residences of the elite. Part of a
bronze bowl again indicates that copper was now being
alloyed with tin and lead and locally cast. The date for this
site lies toward the end of the third millennium B.C.E.

Taosi, in Shanxi province, is one of the most signifi-
cant sites of this period, because it grew to cover more
than 300 hectares (750 acres), and extensive excavations
in the cemetery have involved opening more than 1,000
graves. This huge sample has allowed an appreciation of
grovi'ing social differentiation, because nine contained
considerable mortuary wealth. Up to 200 offerings were
found in such wealthy interments, and the range

included fine jade rings and axes and the remains of two
remarkable wooden drums, each with a striking surface
of crocodile skin. Crocodile scutes from a rich grave at
YINJIACHENG in Shandong were also probably part of a
drum. Historical texts refer to drums as being associated
with royalty. The personal ornaments in these rich graves
are of outstanding refinement. A hairpin from Tomb
2023, for example, had a bone stem enhanced with a
sphere inlaid with TURQUOISE and jade inserts with a per-
forated terminal. This held in place a further thin slat of
jade that would have rung when striking the adjacent
sphere. A middle group of about 80 graves included jade
axes, tubes, and rings, as well as pigs' jawbones, but the
vast majority of poor graves had few, if any, offerings. In
this huge assemblage, only one bronze was found, a bell
of a copper-lead alloy. At the contemporary site of Meis-
han, however, dated to 2300-2000 B.C.E., two pieces of
bronze crucibles made of clay have been found.

A jade pin from ZHUFENG in Shandong province had
two sections: The pin itself, about 21 centimeters (8.4
in.) long, slotted into a decorated plaque inlaid with
turquoise. Its location beside the skulls suggested that it
was a hairpin. Other jade items from this grave, which
held a wooden coffin nested within another, included a
second pin, a blade, and two axes. There were also fine
ceramic vessels and 980 turquoise plaques. Some jade
items in the central plains and Shandong were being of
Liangzhu origin. Alligator skin has been found on a drum
from Taosi and probably originated in the south, which
was also a source of exotic feathers and turtle shell. The
nascent bronze industry would also have encouraged
prospecting and exchange of copper and tin. The organi-
zation of such trade and ownership of rare prestigious
goods have been widely observed in association with the
rise of social elites.

It is also notable, however, that the areas within the
Longshan walled sites are not large. Indeed, at Wang-
chenggang, only one hectare was defended. Other sites
rarely exceed 20 hectares (50 acres) and would hardly
have housed a population of 1,000 people. This small size
scarcely qualifies for the term city as a characterization of
Longshan centers, but it must be recalled that there
might have been substantial settled areas outside the
walls. In this situation, the defended sites could be seen
as special areas fortified for the elite residences and com-
munal structures, such as cult temples. This and other
possibilities, however, must await specifically directed
excavations.

EVIDENCE OF TRADE AND SOCIAL COMPLEXITY

The examination of cemeteries such as Taosi and Zhufeng
has revealed a number of important common features. A
small number of elite graves were included in clusters that
also had much poorer interments. The largest and most
lavishly equipped burials nearly always contained males.

204 Lopburi

They were associated spatially with pits containing com-
plete pottery vessels and on occasion animal skeletons
that suggest the practice of making ritual offerings to the
dead. These elite burials are also distinguished by the
presence of special grave goods, such as jade disks,
yazhang blades, yue axes, and cong tubes. Jade is a very
hard medium to work, and its presence in Longshan
graves is a sure sign of elevated social rank. The sources of
the Longshan jades included the Liaodong Peninsula
across the Gulf of Bohai, \vhere several sites, including
Guojiacun and Wenjiatun, have yielded manufacturing
tools for jade and contain finished jade artifacts. Control
of long-distance trade in such precious substances would
have been one route to elevated social status.

Pig skeletons were offered within the context of mor-
tuary rituals, and later oracle texts from the SHANG STATE
are known to indicate the age and sex of the animals
required for sacrificial purposes. Superb eggshell-thin
ceramic goblets were found in elite burials, and these are
thought to have originated in specialized workshops
rather than being made at the site where they rest. Several
sites have also yielded the crocodile scutes that would
once have formed the striking surfaces of drums. There is
thus a consistent pattern informing us that the Longshan
societies were forming a hierarchical social structure on
the brink of state formation.

Early Chinese histories, such as the SHIJI, refer to a dis-
tant period of Five Emperors. They name kings and cities
and many battles bet-ween innumerable rival kingdoms.
The HANSHU, in referring to this remote predynastic period,
also cites the existence of walled cities. It is an intriguing
possibility that the much later Chinese historians were still
in touch with the very origins of their civilization.

Further reading: Dematte, P. "Longshan-Era Urban-
ism: The Role of Cities in Predynastic China," Asian Per-
spectives 38 (1999): 119-153; Underbill, A. "Variation in
Settlements During the Longshan Period of Northern
China," Asian Perspectives 33 (1994): 197-228.

Lopburi Lopburi is a major center of the DVARAVATI
CIVILIZATION in central Thailand. It is difficult to excavate
because it is covered by a modern town. Two Buddhist
images have been found there, one inscribed in SANSKRIT
dating to the eighth century. A stone "wheel of the law"
(dharmacakra), inscribed in Pali, has also been found. A
mid-eighth-century Mon INSCRIPTION recorded the gift of
slaves and cattle to a monastery. Lopburi -was later taken
by the kingdom of ANGKOR in Cambodia and was one of
the centers mentioned in the reign of JAYAVARMAN VII (r.
1181-1219 C.E.).

Lothal Lothal is a small settlement of the INDUS VALLEY
CIVILIZATION, located at the head of the Gulf of Khambhat
in Gujarat, India. The name derives from the Gujerati

word loth, "dead." Lothal is an unusual Indus civilization
settlement. It is not large, it lies at the southeastern edge
of the known distribution of Indus sites, and it was a cen-
ter for a wide range of manufacturing activities. The raw
materials, such as carnelian and copper, were imported
from beyond the borders of the civilization. The site can
thus be seen as a trading and manufacturing center,
drawing on foreign resources and sending finished goods
to the cities of the Indus Valley and possibly beyond to
the Persian Gulf. The settlement covers an area of 330 by
180 meters (1,089 by 594 ft.) and, as in larger contempo-
rary sites in the Indus Valley, has a separate walled
citadel. One probably held temples and elite residences,
and the other, -which was also walled, incorporated the
houses of the majority of the occupants.

The excavations of S. R. Rao between 1954 and 1962
disclosed five building levels dating bet-ween about 2550
and 2150 B.C.E. During the height of the town's history.
Periods II-IV, the citadel enclosed a series of mud-BRICK
structures divided by streets. One such structure revealed
a row of 12 bathrooms, but the function of other founda-
tions is not clearly apparent. The lower area was given
over not only to residences, but also to a wide range of
craft activities. These included ivory working, for whole
elephant tusks were uncovered, as well as ivory prepared
for further attention, but not yet in the form of completed
artifacts. There -were also a furnace for heating carnelian,
as part of the process involved in the production of
beads. Other raw materials for manufacturing je\velry
included jasper, opal, and crystal. Ingots of copper and
metal slag make it clear that BRONZE CASTING was under-
taken, while marine-shell bangles were also fashioned.

Excavations also uncovered a large brick-lined basin,
219 meters (722 ft.) long and 37 meters wide (122 ft.),
still standing to a height of 4.5 meters. There are no steps
leading do-wn into it, and there is an inlet or outlet at the
southern end. Rao forcefully interpreted this as a dock,
vi'hich he argued -was linked by a canal to the river and on
to the open sea. This line of reasoning then sa\v the site
as an important port, engaged in trade with the cities of
Mesopotamia. The evidence for such trade is minimal:
The excavations furnished a Persian Gulf type SEAL and a
seal impression, but little else to sustain the notion of a
busy port city. A series of technical reasons that have also
been advanced do not sustain the interpretation of the
basin as a dock. An alternative that has gained wide-
spread support is that the basin served as a source of
fresh-water for the city population in an area where much
water is saline.

Further reading: Kenoyer, J. M. Ancient Cities oj the
Indus Civilization. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998;
Leshnik, L. S. "The Harappan Tort' at Lothal: Another
View," American Anthropologist 70: (1968): 911-922; Pos-
sehl, G. L. Harappan Civilization: A Recent Perspective.
New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Lou-Ian 203

Lou-lan Lou-Ian is the name of a state located in the
vicinity of Lop Nor Lake on the eastern margin of the
TARIM BASIN. This area had a long period of occupation
before the establishment of an early state on the SILK
ROAD. Excavations in the area have uncovered remarkably
complete graves -with -well-preserved human remains. The
cemetery of Qa-wrighul, in the center of the later Lou-lan
state, dates back to at least 1800 B.C.E. Several burials
have been uncovered, the most famous that of a well-
preserved woman labeled the beauty of Lou-lan. She was
warmly dressed in a leather skirt and woolen wrap, short
leather boots, and wool cap with a feather in it. She was
accompanied by a COMB, a basket still containing wheat,
and a winnowing tray. Her features were Western, and
her hair auburn. The graves at this cemetery were laid
out in wooden boards, -with the head pointing to the east.
Grave goods often included a bunch of ephedra twigs. A
ring of -wooden stakes -was then placed around the inter-
ments. The availability of sufficient trees and the pres-
ence of flocks of sheep indicate that the area must have
been much -wetter and more amenable to agriculture.

Surviving documents record that Lou-lan's original
name was Kroran. After 77 B.C.E., it formed part of the
kingdom of SHAN-SHAN. For the traveler heading west-
■ward from China to take the Silk Road in the first century
B.C.E. , Dunhuang was one of the last stopping places
before passing through the Jade Gate and confronting the
arid Tarim Basin. The route would then inevitably lead to
the Lop Nor Lake and divide into a northern or a south-
ern passage to avoid the arid Taklamakan Desert. The
area around the lake, therefore, was inevitably strategic,
particularly -when it was better -watered than at present.

EARLY EXCAVATIONS

Both the SHIJI and the HANSHU (History of the Former Han)
describe how the Han official ZHANG QIAN visited this
area in the late second century B.C.E. and gave accounts
of walled cities. He described the state of Lou-lan as hav-
ing 1,570 households with 14,100 people, located 1,600
H from the Jade Gate. Two thousand years later, ^vhen
Sven Hedin -was seeking the lake during his expedition of
1900, he encountered by chance an early settlement. Dig-
ging turned up a piece of shaped wood bearing writing in
a script he could not decipher and several pieces of wood
carving. When ne\vs spread of this discovery, interest was
aroused in this site and the general area, and in 1906 SIR
AUREL STEIN undertook further surveys and excavations.
Stein identified many sites to the north and -west of the
old lake and gave each the name Lou-lan foUo-wed by a
letter of the alphabet.

STEIN'S EXCAVATIONS

Lou-lan A lies north of the lake and is a walled settlement
covering an area of nine hectares (29.7 acres). The thick
walls were made of stamped earth interleaved with layers

of branches to provide resistance to the strong wind that
prevails in this desolate region. The early Chinese
accounts noted the scarcity of good agricultural land in
the Lou-lan area. Nevertheless, Lou-lan A incorporated a
large stupa and administrative buildings and had a
lengthy period of occupancy. Further stupas were noted
at Lou-lan B, lying about 13 kilometers (7.8 mi.) north-
west of the town site; 10 kilometers (6 mi.) to the north-
west Stein found a bluff on top of which were building
foundations and a cemetery known as Lou-lan F His
investigations in the latter are graphically described in his
report, which is accompanied by a photograph of the
body of a young man in a wooden coffin. He wore a felt
hat and leather boots and was interred under a woolen
blanket. Three baskets accompanied him, but their con-
tents had not survived. However, a bunch of ephedra
t-wigs lay beside the body, reminiscent of the consistent
association bet-ween burials and ephedra in the much ear-
lier prehistoric graves of the Tarim Basin. This plant has
medicinal properties and might well have been the con-
stituent of soma, a beverage often described in the RIG-
-VEDA. The body was very well preserved and revealed a
face with clear Western features. It is important to note
that the mortuary traditions at this cemetery match
closely those observed in the area almost 2,000 years pre-
viously: the same felt caps embellished with feathers; the
same woolen wraps, baskets for grain, wooden posts sur-
rounding the graves, and Western features of the dead.

Lou-lan F is another fortified town lying 30 kilome-
ters (18 mi.) northeast of Lou-lan A. It covers only 1.6
hectares (4 acres) but was nevertheless defended by stout
earthen walls three meters wide at the base. Surviving
documents from this site suggest that it was occupied
from the late first century B.C.E. until the late third cen-
tury C.E. It may also have been the capital of the Lou-lan
kingdom before the imposition of Chinese domination
after 77 B.C.E. Lou-lan K is also walled and covers 1.8
hectares. It is located on the western margin of the old
lake and was entered by a single gateway, the wooden
posts and gates of which survived, to be described by
Stein. The same area included at Lou-lan K a small fort
from -which a document in the KHAROSHTHI script, and
silk, wool, and paper remains have been recovered.

The Lou-lan sites contain much evidence for the
establishment of BUDDHISM in the area. Stupas were con-
structed of mud BRICK and -were probably covered in
stucco. The typical form saw the oval stupa proper raised
on top of three square platforms. A wooden flagpole
issued from the top. Wood has been preserved in the dry
desert conditions and provides a glimpse of the fine
architectural details seen, for example, in a lintel from
Lou-lan A embellished with images of the Buddha in
carved niches. Although severely worn, a -wooden door-
jamb from Lou-lan B was carved to include the image of a
BODHISATTVA. A meter-high wooden statue is from the

2o6 Lovea

same site. While Buddhism expresses strong cukural
influences from the West, the excavations of burials in
the vicinity of Lou-Ian A undertaken first by Stein and in
1980 by a Chinese team have also uncovered many Chi-
nese imports. As might be expected, these include fine
silk clothing in which the dead -were buried, lacquer-ware,
Chinese coins, and a bronze mirror.

Lou-Ian depended for its existence on the Konchi
Dar'ya and its replenishing Lop Nor Lake. This river is
prone to change its course as it traverses the flat terrain
north of the lake ^vith major consequences for those who
live along its banks. Just such a movement in the fourth
century could -well have led to the abandonment of the
many sites of Lou-Ian.

Lovea Lovea is a village located northwest of ANGKOR
in Cambodia. Vie-wed from the air, it appears to be sur-
rounded by an earthwork and a moat similar in form to
those in many Iron Age sites in northeast Thailand. It is
reported that human remains -with bronze and iron arti-
facts were unearthed there when the present temple was
under construction. The nature of prehistoric occupation
before the foundation of Angkor is hardly known, and
Lovea is one of a series of similar sites that have the
potential to illuminate this problem.

Lower Xiajiadian culture The Lower Xiajiadian cul-
ture has been recognized for many years; the first major
excavations were at Dongbaijia in 1943 and at Xiajiadian
in 1962. Both sites lie in the outskirts of Chifeng in Inner
Mongolia. More than 2,000 sites are now known, dis-
tributed in Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, and Hebei
provinces. It is a Bronze Age culture, dating between
about 2300 and 1600 B.C.E., and thus contemporary with
the LONGSHAN CULTURE sites in the Huang (Yellow) River
Valley and Shandong province to the south. On the basis
of excavations of Fengxia, three developmental phases
can be recognized in changing pottery forms through the
layers of the site.

The importance of the Lower Xiajiadian culture lies
in the evidence it provides for an extension of the area of
increasing social distinctions into a region relatively
remote from the central plains. Moreover, the bronzes
found as grave offerings have Western parallels, suggest-
ing they provided a conduit for the introduction of
bronze working into China from the West. The origins
are controversial, for the material culture differs
markedly from the preceding HONGSHAN CULTURE, and
the ceremonialism of the latter is no longer in evidence.
Moreover, it ceased in about 1700 B.C.E., followed by 500
years when little or no settlement of the area has been
identified. Some Chinese archaeologists find in the Lower
Xiajiadian culture elements that anticipate and might
well be ancestral to the SHANG STATE of the central plains.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS

Settlements fall into three categories: large defended sites,
the largest covering more than 10 hectares (25 acres);
smaller defended sites, and settlement with no defenses.
There appear to be clusters of sites, each containing one
distinctively large central place, such as Chijiayingzi. The
defensive -walls were constructed of stone, often in the
form of an inner and an outer skin containing stamped
earth within. Many were punctuated with bastions. The
houses were usually at least partially underground, also
constructed of stone where available or stamped earth,
with plastered walls and floors. At the site of Sifendi,
houses were circular, with a diameter rarely exceeding
four meters. They were reached by a set of steps, and the
single room within was dominated by a hearth. On many
occasions, the hearth was accompanied by a pottery ves-
sel that might have contained tinder. There is some evi-
dence that larger square houses occupied elevated ground
in the settlements. At Fengxia, a rectangular house with
two rooms, measuring nine by 8.5 meters (about 900 sq.
ft.), was uncovered. Houses from a variety of settlements
had plastered floors that were renewed on at least six
occasions, indicating long-term occupation. The houses
at Dongbaijia were so strongly constructed that 57 sur-
vive to this day on the present surface of the site.

The economy was based on grain cultivation, with an
emphasis on millet, two varieties of which have been
found at Fengxia. Agricultural implements included
stone hoes and sickles, as well as spades fashioned from
animal shoulder blades. Many storage pits were dug,
probably to safeguard the millet harvest for winter con-
sumption. Domestic pigs, dogs, cattle, goat, and sheep
bones indicate the raising of livestock, and deer were
hunted. Large domestic pig skeletons have often been
found as ritual offerings in graves.

SOCIAL ORDER AND MATERIAL CULTURE

A substantial exposure of graves at Dadianzi has greatly
illuminated the social order. Here 800 burials have been
excavated. The ritual involved single inhumation burial,
and interestingly some interments are relatively large and
richly endo-wed with grave goods. These richer individu-
als, whose graves could be up to 8.9 meters deep, were
interred in wooden coffins. The graves contained niches
for receiving fine painted ceramic vessels and the limbs of
domestic pigs. Polished stone battle axes, lacquerware,
rare jades, bronze ornaments, and up to six complete
skeletons of dogs and pigs were also found. Other graves
had fewer offerings and lacked some of the sumptuary
ceramic vessels such as \vine jugs, but the heads of pigs
and dogs often accompanied the dead.

There is some evidence for craft specialization, in the
form of fine ceramic vessels and stone and ceramic molds
for BRONZE CASTING. The actual bronzes recovered include
earrings, knives, and rings. Their parallels lie to the west.

Luoyang 207

in the Andronovo culture of the Siberian steppes, and in
the case of decorative finials, in BACTRIA. Long-distance
trade would have carried jade and marine shells to these
communities, in \vhich the drilling and heating of animal
scapulae for divination purposes were v^ridespread.
See also ORACLE BONES; XIA DYNASTY.

Lu Lu was a Chinese state dating to the Western and
EASTERN ZHOU DYNASTIES (1045-221 B.C.E.). It was located
in the lower Huang (Yellow) River Valley, in the present
province of Shandong. After the defeat of the Shang
dynasty, the new Zhou court assigned leading members of
the royal lineage to rule over peripheral territory by found-
ing new states. The duke of Zhou was given Lu, and he
sent his eldest son. Bo Qin, to take control of this region,
which had included the former state of Pugu, an enemy of
the Zhou. The descendants of Bo Qin then ruled Lu under
the royal Ji clan for many generations. The state of Lu is
best known as the home of CONEUCIUS (551-479 B.C.E.),
China's most famous and influential political philosopher
and teacher. His temple survives at QUEU, the capital city of
Lu. With the demise of the WESTERN ZHOU DYNASTY and
the move to Luoyang by King Ping, Lu was one of the
states that supported the continuation of the Zhou royal
house under the MANDATE OF HEAVEN.

Qufu is the city that most closely conforms to the
model Zhou city, with a rectangular walled precinct, 12
gates, and interior roads forining a grid pattern. However,
archaeological research has identified only 11 gates, and
the interior roads are not on a grid plan. The royal palace
stood in the center of the city, and areas were devoted to
BRONZE CASTING, bone-artifact manufacture, and ceram-
ics. Several lineage cemeteries have been found within
the city walls, and some of the wealthier graves included
chariots, horses, and bronze vessels. The state endured
until its defeat at the hands of CHU in 256 B.C.E., but the
city continued in occupation during the HAN DYNASTY.

Lu Buwei (d. 235 B.C.E.) Lii Buwei gave his name to an
important Chinese text on political philosophy known as the
Liishi Chunqiu, or The Springs and Autumns of Mr. Lii,
published in 241 B.C.E.

He was a high official in the state of QIN after he had
become wealthy as a merchant. Some rumors assert that
he was actually the father of QIN SHIHUANGDI (259-210
B.C.E.), the first emperor of China and founder of the
short-lived Qin dynasty. The state of Qin rose to become
the most powerful and widely feared of the Warring
States, and the LiXshi Chunqiu, which was \vritten by Lii
Buwei's proteges, was a manual of statecraft offered to the
king. The basic philosophical reasoning advocates that
proper order in the state relied on both the king and his
ministers. The former, through self-discipline and reflec-
tion, projected the moral order of the universe and state

but remained distant from the day-to-day administration
of the bureaucrats. Although Lii Buwei may have hoped
to influence the future emperor, this was not to be. Qin
Shihuangdi ignored all the advice offered except for the
moral justification for armed aggression and, in due
course, sent Lii Buwei into exile. However, the LiXshi
Chunqui enjoyed a more tangible influence on the subse-
quent rulers of the HAN DYNASTY.

Lu Hao (d. 180 B.C.E.) Lu Hao was the senior wife of
Gaozu, the founder of the Western Han dynasty of China.
On the death of the emperor GAOZU in 195 B.C.E., she
first dominated her son, HUIDI, and then ruled as regent
while two infants were nominally on the throne until her
own death in 180 B.C.E. She consolidated her position of
power by appointing members of her own clan to posi-
tions of authority at court and authorizing them to rule
over subsidiary kingdoms. This policy failed with her
death, when members of the Lu clan were massacred and
the Liu family of Gaozu reasserted itself with the appoint-
ment of WENDI as the new emperor.

Lumbini Lumbini, modern Rummindei, was the
birthplace of the Buddha. It is located just north of the
border between India and Nepal. In about 252 B.C.E. it
was visited by King ASOKA, third ruler of the MAURYA
EMPIRE and an enthusiastic convert to BUDDHISM. He had
one of his columns erected there, with a brief INSCRIP-
TION. The text described how the king visited in the
20th year of his reign to worship at the birthplace of the
Buddha Sakyamuni. He had a stone building con-
structed and granted the community a tax concession
whereby their payments were reduced from one-sixth of
production to one-eighth.

Luoyang Luoyang was the capital of the EASTERN
ZHOU DYNASTY from 771 B.C.E., after the sacking of the
former royal center near Xi'an to the west. It lies at the
junction of the Jian and Luo Rivers, south of the Huang
(Yellow) River in the central plains of China. Little is
known of the capital, whose first ruler was King Ping,
because of later building. By the early WARRING STATES
PERIOD, however, a walled city covering an area of about
900 hectares (2,250 acres) had been constructed. In 25
C.E., Luoyang again became the capital under the Eastern
HAN DYNASTY, and a new city was built betvi^een the Lo
and Ku Rivers, the latter feeding the moat that lay in
front of massive walls. Excavations beyond the walls of
the early capital have revealed an extensive series of
burials, at least 1,000 of which have been opened. They
date to the Warring States period (475-221 B.C.E.) and
appear to contain the remains of middle-class occupants
of the city. These contrast with the outstandingly rich
and probably royal graves unearthed at Jincun. Despite

2o8 Luo Zhenyu

looting, they still contained fine mortuary offerings. The
tombs were octagonal wooden chambers, joined by a
doorway to long ramps, one of which reached 80 meters
(264 ft.) in length. Three of the ramps were lined by
long pits containing the remains of horses. The looted
artifacts were outstandingly rich. Three giant ding
tripods lined the doorway giving access to the tomb,
each almost a meter in diameter. Within the chamber,
the upper part of the wooden walls was decorated with a
band of inlaid glass and bronze disks. Some of the
bronze vessels and mirrors were inlaid with gold, silver,
or glass, and there were silver vessels, a statuette, and a
jade and gold pectoral.

Still surviving to a height of 10 meters (33 ft.), the
walls of the later capital were constructed of stamped
earth and enclosed an area of 10 square kilometers (4
sq. mi.). Two palaces lay within the north and south,
connected by a causeway. The city, as was its immediate
predecessor at Chang'an to the west, was divided into
vi^alled precincts and incorporated workshops and mar-
kets. Outside there was a substantial urban sprawl that
included temples, a university, and the royal observa-

tory. The population was probably in the region of
500,000 people. The city, however, was razed to the
ground in 189 C.E.

See also SHANG STATE.

Merv Merv (no-w called Mary), once known as Antiochia
Margiana, an oasis in southern Turkmenistan that attracted
settlement from the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages, was the
seat of several ancient kingdoms and the legendary home of
the Aryans. The water of the oasis was a clear attraction,
located as it is in the Kara-Kum Desert. Merv was strategi-
cally placed on the ancient SILK ROAD and was for centuries
an important capital and military center. There are at least
three successive cities at Merv. The first is known as Gyaur
Kala, the -walls of which enclose an area of about 400
hectares (1,000 acres). This was occupied from the sixth
century B.C.E. until the 10th century C.E., when it was
superceded by Sultan Kala, an Islamic Seljuk foundation.
The latter was built next to its predecessor and covered an
area of 650 hectares (1,625 acres). A still later city, known
as Abdullah Khan Kala, -was founded in 1409 C.E., more
than a century after the Mongols sacked the Seljuk city.

ACHAEMENID CITY

There have been many excavations at Merv, beginning
with the expedition of Raphael Pumpelly early in the
20th century. A long program of research began in the
1950s, and renewed interest and fieldwork began in
1992. These have shown that the sequence at Gyaur Kala,
with its citadel of Erk Kala, began during the period of
the late ACHAEMENID EMPIRE (fifth-fourth centuries
B.C.E.). At that juncture, Margiana was part of a great
empire that stretched from northern India to Egypt. The
earliest reference to Margiana is to be found in the Bisi-
tun, Iran INSCRIPTION of the Achaemenid Persian DARIUS
THE GREAT (522-486 B.C.E.), a word meaning "grassland"
or "lowland."

SELEUCID AND PARTHIAN CITY

The collapse of the Persian empire at the hands of
ALEXANDER THE GREAT (356-323 B.C.E.) led to the founda-
tion of a Hellenistic city on the site. The Seleucid king
Antiochus Soter (r. 281-261 B.C.E.) had a defensive wall
built round the city. The roughly square walls were two

kilometers square, and each contained a city gate.
Within, along Seleucid forms of to-wn planning, the roads
formed a grid pattern. The Seleucid kingdom was rela-
tively short lived, and Merv was to fall to the Parthians.
They had their own mint in the city and defended it with
a line of forts along the northern edge of the oasis. This
third phase belongs to the first to second centuries B.C.E.,
and it is possible that some of the prisoners taken at the
Parthian defeat of the Roman forces at Carrhae (53 B.C.E.)
were settled in Merv.

SASSANIAN CITY

The decline of Parthian power saw Merv change hands
yet again, this time to the SASSANIAN EMPIRE, -whose occu-
pation lasted until the fifth century C.E. Under the Sassa-
nian kings Shapur I (r. 241-272 C.E.) and Shapur II (r.
309—379), the oasis city was placed in the hands of a mil-
itary governor, or marzban. It was during this phase that
the Durnaly fortress in the northern outskirts of Merv
was constructed. Christianity flourished there, and by the
fifth century there -was a metropolitan bishop in resi-
dence. BUDDHISM also penetrated as far west as Merv, but
no farther. The fourth-century stupa and associated
monastery there constitute the westernmost such founda-
tion known.

ARAB CONQUEST

Late Sassanian occupation took the history of Merv to the
seventh century, a difficult time because of the appearance
of the HEPHTHALITE HUNS. Merv was in the eye of this
storm, and it is highly likely that it was from this base that
the Sassanian emperor Peroz (459-84) marched to his
catastrophic defeat at the hands of the Huns. Ho-wever,
Sassanian power was restored by Khusrau I (531-79), and
Merv continued in its traditional role as a military and
trading city until 651, when the expanding po-wer of the
Arabs led to the death, near Merv, of the last Sassanian
king, Yazdigird III. Under new Arab rule, Gyaur Kala con-
tinued as the capital of the region until the 10th century.

The economy of this nodal center on the Silk Road
linking China with Rome and India depended not only
on trade but also on agriculture. Many major irrigation
canals are found in the area of the oasis. Merv was also
the location of a mint. Coins covering many centuries of
its history have been recovered during excavations.

Further reading: Bader, A., V. Gaibov, and G. Koshe-
lenko. "The Northern Periphery of the Merv Oasis," Silk
Road Art and Archaeology III (1993/1994): 51-70; Her-
rmann, G. Monuments of Merv: Traditional Building of the
Karakum. London: Society of Antiquaries of London,
1999.

Metal-Bound Coffer The Metal-Bound Coffer is a text
in the Classic of Documents and -was probably written in
the fifth or fourth century B.C.E. It describes an incident
that clearly illustrates the attitudes of the early Zhou

mingqi 223

dynasty nobles about their recent overthrow of the SHANG
STATE. In 1045, the Zhou defeated the last Shang king,
■who had a well-deserved reputation for cruelty and
depravity. Legitimization of the new dynasty was pro-
vided by the MANDATE OE HEAVEN, whereby heaven
decreed that any ruler who failed to observe righteous
and caring benevolence toward his people would be
replaced by a new lineage imbued with higher moral
force. The duke Zhou, the text states, offered his own life
in return for the recovery of the ailing king who had been
given the Mandate of Heaven. He took soundings of the
ORACLE BONES that returned a unanimously favorable
prognostication and so lived, while the king himself
recovered on the following day.

Mikumo Mikumo is a settlement and cemetery site of
the middle to late YAYOI culture (300 B.C.E.-300 C.E.) of
Japan, with evidence for continued occupation into the
Kofun period (300-710 C.E.). It is located in northern
Kyushu, on a ridge flanked by two streams that cross a rich
area of rice fields. This is the area geographically most
exposed to influence from the mainland, particularly the
PAEKCHE and SHILLA States of Korea and the preceding Chi-
nese LELANG commandery In the 1820s, a jar containing 35
mirrors of Chinese HAN DYNASTY manufacture was found,
together with a bronze spear and sword. This was some of
the first evidence for a major cultural transformation in
Japan, wherein intensive rice farming, metallurgy, and
increasing trade contributed to the development of states.
Excavations at Mikumo from 1975 have recovered more
Chinese Han mirrors, artifacts that later Japanese accounts
suggest gave the owner special magical status. House plans,
either circular or rectangular, were also traced, along with
burials dug in their vicinity. The dead were placed inside
either two ceramic vessels or stone-lined pits. The richer
graves contained glass beads, iron arrowheads, gilt bronzes,
and mirrors as mortuary offerings, but the presence of
many poor graves suggests that social differentiation was
already well developed by middle Yayoi times.

times allowed the formation of a hexagram to provide the
basis for answering questions and divining the future.
The philosophical basis for milfoil divination changed
markedly over time. An example of the application of
milfoil divination is in a tomb text from BAOSHAN, dated
to the WARRING STATES PERIOD (475-221 B.C.E.). In 316
B.C.E., the diviner Wu Sheng pronounced on the illness of
the tomb master, Shao Tuo, who had difficulty in eating
and a heart ailment. The finding of the milfoils was that
the illness could be cured by prayers and sacrifice of five
cattle and five pigs. His prediction of the likelihood of a
cure was auspicious.

Mingalazedi Stupa The Mingalazedi stupa at PAGAN in
Myanmar (Burma) was built in 1284 by King Narathihap-
ati. It is raised on four rectangular terraces, each with a
supplementary stupa at the corners. The walls of the ter-
races are decorated with plaques depicting JATAKA stories.

Mingdi (Liu Xang; Brilliant Emperor) (28-75 c.e.)
Mingdi was the second emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty
of China.

He was the son of GUANG WUDI, the founder of the
dynasty, and his second empress, Yin Lihua. He acceded to
the throne in 57 C.E. In general, Mingdi received a poor
press from early historians. He was accused of being nar-
row minded, and his court was filled with fear and repres-
sion. Many were punished on specious grounds, and there
are reports of considerable extravagance in the construc-
tion of new palaces. It was, however, also the case that
major public works of considerable benefit were initiated,
not least the restoration of the dikes that restrained the
flow of the Huang (Yellow) River. It was also under the
reign of Mingdi that the Chinese empire began a further
period of expansion that was to involve more occupied
territory than ever before. Under the great general Bao
Chao, the TARIM BASIN west of the Jade Gate was taken and
absorbed. This gave China increased control over and
access to the SILK ROAD and its trade links with the West.

milfoil Milfoil stalks were used in China as a means of
divination from at least the beginning of the Zhou dynasty
(1045-256 B.C.E.) and quite possibly earlier. This school of
divination, which was employed alongside the well-known
use of turtle ORACLE BONES, used stalks of the yarrow, a
plant with magical properties. The plant is long lived, and
the stalks grow to a great length. It was said that when
there were peace and harmony and the king was ruling
under the MANDATE OE HEAVEN, the yarrow plant would
grow to a great height and produce many stalks.

Specialists in milfoil divination would take 50 stalks
and remove one. Then they divided the remainder into
two groups and reduced each group by four stalks at a
time until between zero and four remained. They would
form a line with the residue. Repeating this procedure six

mingcii Mingqi is a Chinese term that came into vogue
during the WARRING STATES PERIOD (475-221 B.C.E.) to
describe a spirit object placed into a grave of a person of
high status. It contrasts with a shenqi, which was an item
used during the lifetime of the deceased, and a jiqi, a piece
of sacrificial equipment. It was customary to display mor-
tuary goods before the funeral and to list them, often on
BAMBOO SLIPS that were then positioned inside the tomb.
Mingqi had many forms. Bronze vessels, for example,
could be represented in clay. Ceramic vessels would be
copied but would not be functional. They were often fired
at a low temperature so that the vessels could not contain
water or jugs could not pour. This was deliberate, as has
been described in the Li ji. Musical instruments could be
stringed, but not in tune. Chime stones or bells could be

224 Miran

used, but without a stand. Tomb 13 at the Yan state ceme-
tery of Wuyang illustrates this clearly, for 135 pottery imi-
tations of bronze vessels were included as offerings, and
pottery vessels were fired at too low a temperature to be
useful. The Guo lineage cemetery of Shangcunling in
Henan province, dated to the early EASTERN ZHOU DYNASTY
(770-221 B.C.E.), shows that some of the miniature
bronzes in elite graves represented earlier ritual practices.
Poorer graves contained mingqi ceramic vessels.

HUMAN BEINGS

The concept of mingqi also applied to human beings.
Whereas forinerly people were sacrificed and interred
with the high-status tomb master, figurines began to rep-
resent the servants and followers required in the afterlife.
Their purpose is seen in a grave inventory from Wang-
shan, where they were described as dead servants. The
replacement of real people by spiritual representations,
however, was gradual. At Langjiahung, for example, 26
people were included in the grave, 17 of whom were
young WOMEN in their own individual coffins. The
remainder had been butchered or immolated while still
alive. This suggests a contrast between those chosen to
accompany the master in the next world and others who
were sacrificial victims. At the CHU tomb of Chang-
taiguan, however, figurines were found in a series of
rooms around the main tomb chainber. Wooden models
of drivers were found in the stable and cooks in the
kitchen. Richly dressed clerks or scribes had been placed
in the master's study and a guard in the storeroom.

CLOTHING

Mingqi also applied to clothing. Where organic material
has survived, as at Mazhuan, the corpse was dressed in
specially made spirit clothes including embroidered silks.
Mingqi can also be a profitable source of information on
changing ritual practices. For example, the change during
the period of the Zhou dynasty from ritual use of music
to music as entertainment can be seen in the inclusion of
mingqi musical instruments in mortuary contexts. Thus
sinall representations of bells and chime stones were
placed in burials, in many cases of inferior materials.
See also TOMB MODELS AND RELIEFS.

Miran Miran is one of the inajor sites of the kingdom of
SHAN-SHAN, which controlled the cities of the oases of the
eastern TARIM BASIN between the first century B.C.E. and
the mid-fifth century C.E. The kingdom was always under
threat of coercion from the Chinese on the one hand and
the nomadic XIONGNU on the other. Particularly during
periods of Chinese power, trade along the SILK ROAD flour-
ished, carrying both goods and ideas to Shan-shan froin
east and west. In 1906 SIR AUREL STEIN came across the
site of Miran whose ancient naine under the Shan-shan
kings is not known, while seeking the location of a site
known from Chinese records to have been a major Shan-

shan center. It was located in a bleak and arid desert, but
his research that began the following year revealed that
formerly the site lay between two rivers, long since dried
up, and that canals had moved water to the site. Miran
had about 15 Buddhist structures, including small stupas
set within walled enclosures, and monasteries. Virtually
all that is known of the site depends on Sir Aurel Stein's
fieldwork of 1907 and 1914. On clearing the interior of
two of the stupa shrines, known as Miran Structures III
and V, he uncovered some remarkable paintings. These
depicted winged men of distinctly Western appearance;
the linage of a prince leaving his palace gates on horse-
back, watched from a window by his wife and children;
and a man fighting with a centaur. There is also a rendi-
tion of the Buddha, again of distinctly Western appear-
ance, with dark hair and a small mustache, accompanied
by six disciples. A text in the KHAROSHTHI script identifies
the artist of one of these sets of paintings as Tita, who was
paid for his efforts. The style of the paintings indicates a
date in the third century C.E., when Shan-shan prospered
under peaceful conditions; the paintings show strong
influence from eastern Roman and Gandharan schools. A
monastery wall that was part of Structure II incorporated
a row of massive seated Buddha figures, which, together
with some detached modeled heads, belong to a rather
later date in the fourth century C.E. This confirms what
was known from the reports of the inonk EAXIAN, visiting
Shan-shan on his passage to India in 399 C.E.: BUDDHISM
flourished still under royal patronage.
See also GANDHARA.

Mogao Mogao is located about 25 kilometers (15 mi.)
from DUNHUANG on the eastern margin of the TARIM BASIN
in western China.

A center of Buddhist monastic life, Mogao has about
1,000 caves cut into the rock, some embellished with
sculptures and mural paintings and used for Buddhist
worship. The painted caves bear scenes of the Buddha's
life, ]ATAKA TALES depicting his previous existences, and
illustrations of aspects of life over the period of a millen-
nium. There are also Buddha images that follow the vary-
ing artistic styles as they developed over the centuries, for
these caves were often sponsored by noble families,
groups of merchants, and, on occasion, members of the
royal family of China. While the wall paintings and
sculptures alone make Mogao one of the supreme sanctu-
aries of Buddhist art, the documents hidden around 1000
C.E. in the face of Arab expansion add a unique new
dimension to the historic record. They not only represent
many centuries in the development of BUDDHISM, but they
also include letters, poems, paintings on silk, banners,
and other memorabilia. Mogao was a strategic location
during the course of the first millennium C.E., because it
commanded a vital staging post on the SILK ROAD, the
great trading route that linked the empires of East and
West. At Dunhuang, the traveler heading to the west had

Mogao 225

the choice of following the route to the north of the Tak-
lamakan Desert via BEZEKLIK and Kuqa or KAXGAR or the
southern route through MIRAN, NIYA, and HOTAN. In the
opposite direction, any merchant caravan on reaching
Dunhuang would have successfully traversed the most
arduous and difficult sector of the Silk Road. This region
■was also the westernmost extremity of the GREAT WALL of
China, while the Jade Gate was seen as the symbolic and
physical entry into China itself.

THE CAVES

Mogao is a long cliff facing a perennial stream that
encourages a luxuriant vegetation on the very edge of the
desert. Mogaoku, "peerless caves," is the most fabulous of
all the Buddhist monastic sanctuaries on the ancient Silk
Road. It is said to have been founded by the monk
Yuezun, who in 366 C.E. was attracted to its solitude
compared with the bustling border post of Dunhuang,
and he cut out a cell in the rock as a location of medita-
tion. Other monks soon followed him, and for a 1,000
years Mogao was a center of Buddhist monastic life. For
those who had survived the harsh conditions and ban-
ditry of the journey around the desert, here was an
opportunity to give thanks and make offerings. Those
traveling in the opposite direction could pray and give
donations to ensure safety in the journey that lay ahead.

Ultimately, about 1,000 caves were cut into the rock,
some large enough only for a single cell for meditation,
others of sufficient size for large congregations. Two
groups are recognized: the northern and the southern.
The latter, numbering almost 500, have painted decora-
tion and are distributed over a distance of more than a
kilometer. The 248 caves in the northern sector are not
painted and were largely ignored until excavations were
undertaken between 1988 and 1995. The caves can be
divided into four groups. A few -were used for storage.
Meditation caves included an antechamber and individ-
ual cells equipped with a couch and often a platform. The
residential caves were relatively spacious, with high ceil-
ings, a stone fireplace and flue, and a bed. Wall niches
■were cut to receive lamps to illuminate the interior. There
■were also burial caves, typically low and small, contain-
ing cremated ashes. Rarely, a residential cave was con-
verted for mortuary use, with the flue blocked.

THE PAINTINGS

The caves lie in serried ro^ws and tiers one above the
other, overlooking the stream valley below. Despite the
ravages of this harsh desert environment, many paintings
have survived in remarkably good condition. One, for
example, shows a caravan crossing the desert and being
attacked by brigands. Another specifically identifies the
famous seventh-century monk XUANZANG on his return
journey to China, accompanied by an auspicious white
elephant. Another shows a tranquil domestic building in
a courtyard. Horses are being stabled in the foreground.

while two oxen haul a plow in the distance. The caves of
Mogao thus are a pictorial guide through a millennium of
Silk Road history. Some paintings date to the Northern
Liang dynasty that controlled the area in the early fifth
century C.E. It was during this period that the painting
depicting the future Buddha having his o^wn flesh cut
away to save the life of a dove, one of the most notable of
the jataka stories, was created.

Many caves were founded during the life of the
Northern Wei dynasty of China (386-535 C.E.). There
were vicissitudes as ■well as periods of tranquility. During
the late sixth century, there was a reaction against Bud-
dhism under the Northern Zhou dynasty, and it is
reported that some monasteries that were located in front
of the cliff face were destroyed. Ho^wever, the accession of
the Sui dynasty in 589 brought this period of difficulty to
an end. What could be described as the golden age of
Mogao followed during the Tang dynasty (618-907 C.E.),
and during this period the famous monk Xuanzang
embarked on his epic journey to India and returned to be
welcomed at Dunhuang. In 695 the empress Wu ordered
the construction of a giant statue of the Buddha 33 meters
(109 ft.) high at Mogao. In the late eighth century, ■with
Yang power on the \vane, Mogao came under the control
of the empire of Tibet, a dominance that lasted until 848
C.E. Thereafter, under a series of local rulers, caves contin-
ued to be commissioned or restored until about 1000 C.E.,
when the Arabs seized Hotan and threatened further
expansion to the east. Their aversion to images and repre-
sentations of deities was probably responsible for the pre-
cautionary secreting of precious documents and paintings
behind a sealed door in Cave 16.

WESTERNERS AT MOGAO

During the course of the late 19th century, the existence of
the painted shrines of Mogao drew the attention of West-
ern explorers. In 1879, the Russian Nikolay Przhevalisky
visited Dunhuang and admired the paintings. It was not,
however, until 1900 that the local abbot Wang Yuanlu
noticed the concealed entrance to the chamber where the
documents had been secreted away 1,000 years earlier.
Wang Yuanlu was aware of the significance of his discovery
and recommended that the cache be taken to Lanzhou for
safekeeping. This was not to be, and in 1907 SIR AUREL
STEIN, already well aware of their existence but not know-
ing of the quantity or their historic significance, arrived at
Mogao. In the words of Sir Leonard WooUey, his arrival
heralded "the most daring and adventurous raid upon the
ancient world that any archaeologist has attempted." Stein
could not read Chinese, but his secretary was able to
examine some of the documents and discovered that some
■were of inestimable historic importance, being Buddhist
texts translated into Chinese 1 ,200 years previously by the
famous monk Xuanzang. Stein then played on the
credulity of his host and persuaded him that such texts
should be returned to India, their original home. For an

226 Mohenjo Daro

outlay of 130 pounds he obtained 13,000 complete or par-
tial manuscripts as well as paintings and embroidered fab-
rics of outstanding quality. Presently in the British
Museum, in London, England, this assemblage threw a
new light on Chinese history and the practice of Buddhism
from the early fifth to 10th century.

Sir Aurel Stein's inability to read Chinese was, how-
ever, a major impediment to appreciating the significance
of individual items. Paul Pelliot, however, the next West-
ern scholar to visit Dunhuang, was the most brilliant
Sinologist of his day, and in 1908 he pored over the large
collection of manuscripts still at Mogao before selecting
the choicest and most important for removal to the
Musee Guimet and the National Library of France in
Paris. The remainder were ultimately to be housed away
from predatory foreigners in Beijing.

This was not, however, the end of these cultural
raids. The American art historian Langdon Warner visited
Mogao in the 1920s and hacked a number of wall paint-
ings from the caves and took them back to the Fogg
Museum of Harvard University in the United States.
Today, despite the loss of so much, the Chinese authori-
ties have established a research center at the site of the
Buddhist shrines, and visitors are permitted to visit a
selection of the many caves that can veritably be
described as the Sistine Chapel of early Buddhist art.

See also CHAM CIVILIZATION.

Rakhigarhi Rakhigarhi is one of the most easterly sites
in India with remains of the pre-INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZA-
TION. The site, as do many of the Indus Valley civiliza-
tion, has two mounds, a small citadel to the west, and a
larger mound also to the ■west. It lies on the now-dry
bank of the Chautang River about 90 kilometers north-
■west of Delhi. In due course, this site gre^w into one of the
largest of the Indus cities, covering an area in excess of
80 hectares (200 acres).

Ramannadesa The Mon people were responsible for
the DVARAVATI CIVILIZATION (400-900 C.E.) of the CHAO
PHRAYA BASIN in Thailand and also for a state that devel-
oped in the lower reaches of the Salween and Sittang
Rivers in southeastern Myanmar (Burma). This kingdom
■was known as Ramannadesa and also on occasion as
Su^wannabhumi, the "land of gold." Little is known of
this kingdom, although it occupied a strategic position
commanding the Three Pagodas Pass that links India
■with Southeast Asia. The area received Buddhist influence
in the form of missionaries during the third century
B.C.E., and BUDDHISM flourished from early beginnings.
The capital city is known as THATON. It is of rectangular
plan, demarcated by two laterite walls and a moat, and it
covers an area of about 275 hectares (690 acres). A palace
precinct occupies the area just north of the center of the
enclosure. There are several impressive Buddhist temples.
The present Shwezayan temple is thought to overlie a
fifth-century foundation housing four teeth of the Bud-
dha. Five 11th-century INSCRIPTIONS in the Mon language
have been found on the temple grounds. A few of the sur-

28o Ramayana

viving terra-cotta plaques that embellished the Myathein-
dan temple survive and illustrate 11th-century images of
passages in the life of the Buddha. Hinduism at Thaton is
seen in ninth- and 10th-century reliefs of Vishnu, SIVA,
and Brahma. Other major settlements of this state have
been identified at the walled center of Taikkala, probably
originally known as Suwannabhumi, and the decorated
wall at Ksindat Myindat.

Ramayana With the mahabharata, the Ramayana is
one of the epic histories of India. In seven books, it is
reputedly the work of Valmiki. It was probably completed
by the first century B.C.E. The saga centers on the person
of Rama, the god Vishnu in human form, who descended
to Earth at the behest of the gods to end the dominance
and churlish behavior of the giant Ravana. Born as the
son of the king of Ayodhya, Rama developed heroic pro-
portions and won the hand of Princess Sita in an archery
competition. By now the crown prince, he was exiled by
his father and spent 14 years in the wilderness, accompa-
nied by his wife, Sita, and his faithful brother. When Sita
was seized by the giant Ravana, Rama resolved to find
and free her. He formed an alliance with Sugriva, a prince
of the monkeys, and Hanuman, a monkey general. Hanu-

man learned that Sita was a prisoner in the palace of
Ravana, and the mighty Battle of Lanka between Rama
and his monkey allies and the forces of Ravana ensued. In
single combat, Rama killed Ravana and regained Sita.
Having been abducted and taken to the Lankan palace,
however, Sita was required by Rama to undergo an ordeal
of fire to test her purity. After she survived the test, Sita
and Rama returned in triumph to Ayodhya for their coro-
nation. There are numerous twists and turns and many
subplots in the seven chapters of the saga, which is
widely perceived as a triumph of good over evil. Various
allusions to places and events render it at least partly use-
ful to historians.

The Ramayana was adopted and modified in the early
Southeast Asian states. Known as the Rieamker in Cam-
bodia and the Ramakien in Thailand, it was a rich source
of the legends depicted on the temple reliefs. Many
notable scenes from the Ramayana may be seen on the
Angkorian temples. At BANTEAY SREI and ANGKOR WAT in
Cambodia, Ravana is depicted shaking Mount Kailasa.
Angkor Wat also includes the archery contest in which
Rama won the hand of Sita. The abduction of Sita by
Ravana appears at Banteay Srei, but probably the most
popular theme is the Battle of Lanka.

Scene from the Ramayana depicted on a stone lintel in Thailand (@ Wolfgang Kaehler/CORBIS)

Rehman Dheri 281

Rang Mahal Rang Mahal is a site on the former course
of the SARASVATI RIVER in Rajastan province, northwest
India, which has given its name to a distinctive cukure
dated about 250-550 C.E. More than 20 other sites with
the distinctive pottery styles of Rang Mahal are known
from this region. The coins recovered from excavations
undertaken in 1952-54 show that the most intensive
occupation of the site occurred during the reign of the
KUSHAN king Kaniska III. Eight periods of construction
have been identified, in which the houses were built of
mud BRICK. Gandharan influence has been suggested in a
number of terra-cotta plaques belonging to the period of
the early GUPTA EMPIRE.
See also GHANDARA.

Rangpur Rangpur is a settlement located on the Bhadar
River in the Kathiawar Peninsula, western India. It was
first investigated in 1935, but the major excavations took
place between 1953 and 1956. There is an early prehis-
toric phase, but the principal interest in this site lies in the
Period IIA occupation in 2000-1500 B.C.E. of the INDUS
VALLEY CIVILIZATION. The typical mud-BRICK houses had
baths, and there was a public drainage system. STEATITE,
carnelian, and agate beads and ceramics were found. No
SEALS or sealings, however, were recovered. Further inter-
est lies in the continuity of occupation during the course
of the second millennium B.C.E. , properly defined as a
post-Indus civilization. Phase IIB did not reveal evidence
for mud-brick structures, baths, or drains, but brick struc-
tures were again encountered in the layers dated
1100-800 B.C.E. Unlike many Indus sites, Rangpur was
not abandoned, although the relationship between the
earlier and later occupants remains conjectural.

Rawak Rawak, "high palace" or "mansion," is a major
site of the HOTAN state located northwest of the capital,
Yotkan, on the road to NIYA in western China. It -was dis-
covered by SIR AUREL STEIN in 1901, when it was a tall
mound virtually covered in sand, rising to a height of
nine meters (30 ft.). His excavations uncovered the foun-
dations of a stupa raised on square platforms whose size
decreased upward toward the dome. It was surrounded
by an enclosing wall measuring 49 by 42 meters. This
exterior wall was embellished by a remarkable series of
clay and stucco statues of the Buddha, outstanding exam-
ples of early Buddhist sculpture in Central Asia. Stein
suggested, on the evidence of Chinese coins, that the site
dated to the fourth to seventh centuries C.E. In 1928 a
further excavation took place under German direction,
and more statues were uncovered. The complete assem-
blage known through the surviving statues or pho-
tographs now includes about 116 individuals items, most
life-size but some larger than life. The sculptures fall into
two main chronological groups. The earlier, dated to the
late third or early fourth century C.E., show marked par-

allels with sculptures from the west, including MATHURA,
TAXILA, DALVERZIN TEPE, and TOPRAK KALA. This group
does not include any BODHISATTVAS and might belong to a
period in Hotan when Hinayana, or Low, BUDDHISM pre-
dominated. The second group has been dated to the first
half of the fifth century C.E. and includes bodhisattvas
and door guardians. By this juncture, MAHAYANA BUD-
DHISM seemed to have achieved dominance in the region.

Red Eyebrows The name Red Eyebrows refers to an
army of rebellious peasants from Shandong province,
China, who rose up against the emperor WANG MANG in
22 C.E. This uprising followed a series of disastrous
floods as the Huang (Yellow) River burst its banks and
followed new channels. Such flooding led to crop failure
and the threat of starvation. Peasants painted their fore-
heads red for easy identification on the battlefield, and
their revolt led members of the old Western Han royal
line to rise up in concert, leading to the death of Wang
Mang and the establishment of the Eastern HAN DYNASTY.
The History of the Later Han (hou HANSHu) contains an
intriguing reference to the means taken in the country-
side to counter the threat of the Red Eyebrows. It
describes how, at the end of the reign of Wang Mang,
there was a plague of bandits and outlaws. A local leader
called Diwu Lun attracted many kinsmen and other fol-
lowers, and he organized the construction of a walled
fortress. He then armed his men with bows and arrows;
despite attacks by the Red Eyebrows on several occasions,
this group was never defeated in its stronghold.

Rehman Dheri Rehman Dheri is a site of the INDUS
VALLEY CIVILIZATION, located in the Gomal Valley to the
west of the Indus River. It was occupied from about
3000-2000 B.C.E. It is considered likely that the Indus
River was once closer to the site, to judge from an ancient
course just five kilometers away. The site covers 19
hectares (47.5 acres) and rises to a height of six meters
(20 ft.) above the surrounding plain. It was excavated by
E A. Durrani in the late 1970s and again in 1991. Eour
areas were opened, ranging from the center of the mound
to its periphery, and three occupation phases were discov-
ered. The initial settlement took place during the KOT DIJI
phase of the Early Harappan, and a series of mud-slab
walls were exposed. A large wall of similar materials sur-
rounded the site. The radiocarbon dates for this early
phase place initial settlement in the vicinity of 3000
B.C.E., a date of considerable interest, for it is associated
with an ivory SEAL bearing three possible antecedents of
the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION SCRIPT. The seal was also
embellished with images of mountain goats, scorpions,
and a frog. The second period has furnished pottery of
the Kot Diji style decorated with peacocks and pipal
leaves. Artifacts representative of the mature Harappan
civilization of the Indus Valley have been recovered from

282 Ribadeneyra, F. Marcello de

the upper deposits. These include carneUan, LAPIS LAZULI,
and TURQUOISE beads, many in an unfinished state, indi-
cating local manufacture. There is also some evidence for
a formal layout, for a street divides the site into two parts.
The inhabitants cultivated wheat and barley, maintained
domestic cattle, sheep, and goats, and also fished and
hunted the local wild fauna.

The Rig-Veda asserts: "If we have deceived, like
gamblers in a game of dice," a passage that recalls the
common discovery of gambling dice in sites of the
Indus Valley civilization.

Ribadeneyra, F. Marcello de (16th century) F. de Rib-
adeneyra published Historia de las Islas del Archipelago y
Reinos della gran China, Tartaria, Cochinchina, Malaca,
Siam, Camboxa, y Japan . . . in 1601, the first account of
Angkor in Cambodia in a European language.
He wrote:

We suppose that the founders of the kingdom of Siam
came from the great city which is situated in the middle
of a desert in the kingdom of Cambodia. There are the
ruins of an ancient city which some say was built by
Alexander the Great or the Romans, it is amazing that
no one lives there now, it is inhabited by ferocious ani-
mals, and the local people say it was built by foreigners.

Rig-Veda Vedas are sacred ritual hymns that survived
through oral tradition in India until first transcribed in the
14th century C.E. They have been intoned by Hindu priests
during religious ceremonies for millennia, especially dur-
ing ceremonies incorporating sacrifice and the soma ritual.
The gods worshiped include the principal deities of Hin-
duism in their early manifestations: Foremost is Agni, the
god of fire; Surya, the Sun god; Rudra, god of storms; and
INDRA and Vishnu, the gods of war. The Rig- Veda is the
principal and earliest such collection of hymns. These con-
tributed to the later Yajur Veda and the Sama Veda. The
vedas continue to be recited to this day.

WHEELER'S VIEW EQUATING PEOPLE OF
RIG-VEDA WITH END OF INDUS CIVILIZATION

SANSKRIT, the language of the Rig-Veda, belongs to the
Indo-European family. Dating the hymns takes on pro-
found significance, for it would indicate not only the
presence of Indo-European languages in India, but also
the nature of the societies at that time. There is no agree-
ment on the chronological context or even the archaeo-
logical correlates of the activities and places described in
the Rig- Veda. Indeed, there are at least two diametrically
opposing schools of thought and groups that occupy the
middle ground.

First, a widely repeated view is that the Indo-Euro-
pean peoples of the Rig-Veda swept into northwestern
India and Pakistan in the early second millennium B.C.E.

and were responsible for destroying the cities of the
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION. This view has its clearest
expression in the writings of SIR MORTIMER WHEELER, who
was the director-general of archaeology in India during
the 1940s and adviser to the Pakistan government after
partition in 1947. He excavated at MOHENJO DARO and
HARAPPA, the two major Indus cities, and at the former, he
found a number of skeletons and evidence for burning:
"Men, women and children, some bearing ax or sword
cuts, found lying on the topmost level in the sprawled or
contorted positions in which they fell." Wheeler then
proceeded, in his own words, with a "guess." He pro-
posed that the Indus cities fell to the invading Aryans,
whose sacred chants incorporated in the Rig- Veda con-
stantly refer to an onslaught on walled cities. The barbar-
ians responsible, he noted, were not accustomed to city
life, but were nomadic people from the steppes. These,
Wheeler noted, were nothing more than conjectures, but
the linking of the Mohenjo Daro "massacre" with the
Aryan invasion was a tempting path to follow.

ERAWLEY'S VIEW THAT RIG-VEDA PEOPLE WERE
THE INDUS CIVILIZATION

However, his conjecture has drawn considerable criticism
from many quarters, and David Frawley has countered it
on every front in a lengthy essay. In the first case, were
there nomadic warriors and the destroyers of cities?
There is no doubt that the Vedics mention their gods as
the conquerors of cities, but they themselves were also
city dwellers. The cities destroyed were also evidently
occupied by other Vedic people. One reason for war, it is
said, was that one group destroyed the dam belonging to
another. The alleged barbarian nomads also cultivated
barley and maintained herds of cattle. They dug wells,
used buckets to remove the water, and employed IRRIGA-
TION channels to sustain their crops in fields that were
plowed for planting. Details of houses can be culled from
a reading of the sacred hymns. It is possible to recon-
struct aspects of urban life from the Rig-Veda. There was
always a sacred fire burning in a room "where Agni, the
fire god, rests at ease." There was a room set aside for
WOMEN; there were couches with pillows. The life
described is one of opulence in spacious homes. The peo-
ple held wealth and generosity in sacrificial rituals in
high esteem. There was mention of traveling merchants,
and the accumulation of riches; words for price, value,
costly, and debt are found. There was a standard for
exchange. Wealth was measured in gems, gold, silver,
land, horses, and cattle. Ships with 100 oars were men-
tioned, and the sea with billowing waves was described.
The city dwellers consumed beans, grain, and sesame
cooked with milk. They were fond of gambling: The Rig-
Veda asserts, "If we have deceived, like gamblers in a
game of dice," a passage that recalls the common discov-
ery of gambling dice in sites of the Indus Valley civiliza-
tion. There were numerous references to weavers, the art

ritual bronze vessels 283

of weaving, and shuttles, and many spindle whorls and
remnants of cloth were found at Mohenjo Daro. However,
early vedas mention -wool and silk rather than cotton.

Where were these cities located? The river most
often described is the sacred Sarasvati, the gold-streamed
course of which flowed to the sea past green fields. The
rulers of these cities possessed horse-drawn chariots, and
their prestige increased with their sacrifices of horses and
cattle, particularly to the god of fire. Frawley, noting the
vital importance of the SARASVATI RIVER to the Vedic peo-
ple, asks ho-w they could have knovi^n about it if it had
dried up before the proposed second millennium B.C.E.
date of their arrival. Again, the Vedas reveal familiarity
■with the entire course of the Sarasvati and of much of
northern India and Pakistan.

Archaeological Evidence Confirming Frawley's View

What, then, is the archaeological legacy of the society so
richly documented in the Rig-Veda? There should be evi-
dence of an urban society with religious leaders and evi-
dence for a sacrificial bull cult and a god of fire. There
should be evidence for trade by river and sea, large houses
for an elite, plows and irrigation employed in the cultiva-
tion of barley and -wheat, dairy cows, metal, and horse-
drawn chariots. Finally, there should be the cities
themselves. Given that there is no conclusive evidence for
the date of the original Vedas, Fra-wley finds no reason to
ignore as the prime candidate the civilization of the Indus
Valley itself. The archaeological evidence is indeed con-
vincing. Sites such as Kalibangan have furnished fire altars
and sacrificial pits containing cattle bones on the BRICK
temples. SEALS show horned gods and animal sacrifice.
There were opulent houses, and the elite wore gold orna-
ments. Some seals bear images of large boats. Indus seals
in Mesopotamia and Mesopotamian seals in India indicate
sea trade. The remains of a plo-wed field have been uncov-
ered at Kalibangan. Terra-cotta figurines of horses survive,
as do models of wheeled vehicles. The Indus civilization
relied on the cultivation of barley and wheat. Harappa has
a large series of threshing floors beside a granary. Many
dice reflect a passion for gambling.

It would indeed be fascinating if the great body of
religious lore contained in the Rig-Veda did in fact
describe the cities of the Indus civilization, for the script
remains undeciphered, and kno-wledge of the social orga-
nization is hazy at best. Further implications have the
potential to alter profoundly the appreciation of the
course of Indian civilization. Thus, are the gods seen on
the Indus seals and the stone LINGAMS recovered from
such sites as Mohenjo Daro representatives of early Hindu
deities? If the people of the Indus civilization spoke an
Indo-European language, for ho-w long had their ancestors
been present in this region, and how did a branch of this
language family reach South Asia? Many authorities con-
sider it likely that the early Vedas date between 1800 and
1000 B.C.E. However, there remains the possibility that

some are considerably earlier and -would thus fall within
the compass of the Indus civilization. Indo-European
speakers -were also early farmers who expanded from the
Near East and took with them knowledge of agriculture.

THE MIDDLE GROUND

The equation of the Rig-Veda with the Indus civilization,
however, has not received -widespread acceptance. There
remains a substantial middle ground of scholars with a
third view, -who accept neither this straightforward link-
age nor the notion of an invading horde of nomadic bar-
barians. Raymond Allchin, for example, has suggested
that far from being an invading force, the Indo-Aryan
people infiltrated Pakistan over many centuries.

ritsuryo A ritsuryo is a civil and penal code. Several
■were issued by Japanese emperors in the late seventh and
early eighth centuries to establish the legal basis of the
imperial late YAMATO and NARA STATE. They were modeled
on the Chinese system and provided the framework for a
tightly structured aristocratic regime in which the state
owned all the land and people. The emperor Tenchi
issued an early set of laws when ruling from Omi in 662
C.E. Revised in 689 C.E. these formed the basis for the
minute regulation of society embodied in the Taiho Code
of 701 C.E. and the YORO CODE of 718 C.E. No copy of the
former survives, but the latter is embodied in later com-
mentaries. The purpose of the codes was to provide for
social stability and establish the status of the ruling fam-
ily and aristocracy. In the same context, the NlHONGl -was
ordered at the same time as the Yoro Code to confirm the
antiquity and legitimacy of the royal lineage.

ritual bronze vessels In the Chinese ritual tradition
bronze vessels played a key role. Many thousands have
been recovered under controlled conditions from tombs,
particular those dating to the SHANG STATE (1766-1045
B.C.E.) and WESTERN ZHOU DYNASTY (1045-771 B.C.E.);
more have been looted and sold to collectors. One of the
most important aspects of the study of these bronzes is
that many, particularly during the Western Zhou dynasty,
were embellished with INSCRIPTIONS of inestimable his-
torical value. The bronzes also changed over time in both
form and decoration, and the quality and quantity of ves-
sels can be used to identify both the tomb occupant and
the person's status.

The vessels -were cast by using the complex piece-
mold system, in -which a ceramic negative in separate
pieces was assembled over a corresponding clay core
before the casting procedure. This was a distinctive Chi-
nese technological accomplishment that demanded high
skill of specialists. Their accomplishments are nowhere
more clearly reflected than in the tomb contents of EU
HAO (c. 1200 B.C.E.), royal consort to King Wu Ding, at
ANYANG. More than 200 bronzes -were found, totaling

284 rock monasteries

1,600 kilograms (3,520 lbs.) of bronze, some ■weighing
up to 70 kilograms (154 lbs.) each. These were Fu Hao's
ritual and banqueting ware, one feature of -which was an
assemblage of more than 50 wine vessels, or git. Other
major forms were used for serving food and drink.

During the period of Eastern Zhou, ritual bronzes
continued to be cast in considerable quantities, and the
inscriptions that recorded their owners and the circum-
stances of casting provide a vital source of historical infor-
mation. Often bronzes along with chariots were given by
the king, and the services that attracted such rewards are
recorded. Indeed, the first historic document describing
the successive rulers of the Western Zhou dynasty and
their achievements is found on the SHI QIANG pan, a vessel
from the ZHUANGBAI hoard (c. 771 B.C.E.) of 103 items
belonging to five generations of an aristocratic family.

the site of the weights and SEALS so characteristic of this
civilization. Again, the typical food plants, wheat and bar-
ley, gave way at Rojdi to the harder millet. The site was
ringed by a stone defensive wall that began two meters
wide, but vi^as later strengthened; while the houses were
typically built of mud over a stone base, there is no evi-
dence for a drainage system. Rojdi thus represents a singu-
lar Harappan adaptation of considerable durability in this
inland region of Gujarat.

Rong Chen The temple pyramid of Rong Chen is
located on the KULEN HILLS north of ANGKOR in Cambo-
dia. It is widely considered to be the most likely location
for the consecration of JAYAVARMAN II as CHAKRAVARTIN,
supreme king of kings, in 802 C.E., thus initiating the
kingdom of Angkor.

rock monasteries More than 1,000 rock monasteries
have been identified in central and southern India. They
were built between the second century B.C.E. and the
ninth century C.E. as centers of Buddhist life and learning.
They typically have rooms for the monks, with stone beds
and pillows, a mandapa, or hall for meetings and religious
ceremonies, and a sanctuary, or caitya, incorporating a
stupa. A stupa is a mounded structure that in the early
days of the rock monasteries represented the Buddha and
would be deemed to contain a relic of the Buddha or one
of his followers. Early examples in the Deccan are seen at
Lomasa Rishi and Sudama. Their architecture clearly
reveals that they were built in imitation of wooden struc-
tures with a thatched roof. As at Lomasa Rishi, which has
a simple caitya and apsidal-end chamber, the early rock
monasteries of the Decan began with a small and spare
plan, extending only about 10 meters (33 ft.) in the rock
face and terminating with a circular chamber containing
the stupa. Over the course of time, these temples became
larger and of more complex design. At Bhaja, for example,
the interior had a series of columns, and similar trends are
seen among the earliest caityas at AJANTA, dated to about
70 B.C.E., and soon to be embellished with the first paint-
ings. The most famous at ELLORA and Ajanta are major
architectural achievements, incorporating fine sculptures
and paintings. All are now deserted.

Rojdi Rojdi is a settlement site that falls broadly in the
tradition of the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION but also reveals
a number of distinctive local characteristics. It is located
on the Saurasthra Plateau in Gujarat state, India. Its loca-
tion beside the Bhadar River might explain its long but
narrow form, 500 meters (1,650 ft.) in length but only 150
wide (495 ft.). Excavations in 1982—86 and again in
1992—95 showed that a threefold sequence, dating within
the outer limits of the Indus Valley civilization (2500-1700
B.C.E.). The ceramics show only a few parallels with those
of sites to the west, while there is a notable absence from

Rongkab Rongkab is the name of a village mentioned
in a copper plate INSCRIPTION dating to 901 C.E. from cen-
tral Java in Indonesia. The actual find spot of this inscrip-
tion is not known. It records how the villagers were
granted exemption from paying a certain form of tax. The
minor officials involved were paid measures of silver in
return. It also mentions the names of village elders, one
of whom held the office of chief of the rice supply.

Ropar Ropar, also known as Rupnagar, is a settlement
and cemetery of the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (2500-1700
B.C.E.) located on the south bank of the Sutlej River in
northwestern India. It was excavated in 1950 and again
in 1982. There are three distinct mounds, the northern
21 meters (70 ft.) high and revealing evidence for settle-
ment from the early and mature Indus civilization
through the period of PAINTED GREY WARE (800-500
B.C.E.) and into the Indian medieval period. The western
mound covers an inhumation cemetery in which the dead
were interred with the head to the northwest and associ-
ated with pottery vessels, personal ornaments, and, in
one case, the skeleton of a dog. Deep soundings in the
northern mound have revealed the remains of mud-BRICK
houses on stone foundations, together with a typical
Indus material culture that includes stone weights, a
STEATITE SEAL, the remains of clay bearing three separate
sealings, and terra-cotta carts. Copper arrowheads and
spears are also characteristic of the Indus civilization.

royal palaces

SOUTHEAST ASIA

The presence of a royal palace is widely seen as one of the
indications of civilization. In Southeast Asia, palaces were
built principally of wood and therefore have not survived.
However, there is a continuous thread of evidence for
their existence from the earliest state of FUNAN (150-550
C.E.) to the duration of the kingdom of ANGKOR. Two

royal palaces 285

Chinese emissaries who visited Southeast Asia during the
third century C.E. described walled settlements and a
palace. Some temples of the CHENLA period (550-800
C.E.) were decorated with what have been termed flying
palaces. An example from ISHANAPURA shows elevated and
richly decorated pavilions with windows separated by
columns. Figures can be seen within, presumably members
of the aristocracy. The lintel of Wat En-Khna of the same
period shows the enthroned king in his palace, surrounded
by retainers. The description of a Chenla palace has sur-
vived in the writings of Ma Duanlin. The king gave an
audience in a hall containing a wooden throne embellished
with columns of inlaid wood and fine fabrics. At the
Roluos Group (hariharalya) of INDRAVARMAN I at Angkor,
there is a raised rectangular area between the moat and the
wall of the second enclosure at FREAH KO that might well
be the foundation for the royal palace. Indravarman's own
inscription mentions his "lion throne, a vehicle, the palace
Indravimanaka and a golden pavilion."

Namasivaya was a royal herdsman with responsibility
for the sacred cattle. It is recorded on an inscription that
under JAYAVARMAN VI (r. 1080-1107 C.E.) he led the cattle
in a procession around the royal palace. During the reign
of JAYAVARMAN VII (1181-1219 C.E.), the royal palace lay
north of the BAYON, where today there is a walled precinct
dominated by the temple of the PHIMEANAKAS. Tranquil
basins lie between this temple and the northern enclosing
wall. This area has recently been excavated, and huge
wooden post foundations were encountered, presumably
the foundations for the palace.

ZHOU DAGUAN in 1296-97 visited Angkor and
described this palace as being set apart by its own walls
and guards: "The Royal Palace lies to the north of the
Golden Tower and east of the bridge of gold; its circum-
ference is nearly 2.5 kilometers (1.5 mi.). The tiles of the
central dwelling are of lead, other parts of the palace are
covered in yellow pottery tiles. Lintels and columns, all
decorated with carved or painted Buddhas, are immense.
The roofs too, are impressive. Long colonnades and open
corridors stretch away, interlaced in harmonious relation.
In the chamber where the sovereign attends to affairs of
state, there is a golden window. ... I have heard it said
that within the palace are many marvelous sights." Simi-
lar walled precincts around the royal palace may be seen
today in Phnom Penh and Bangkok.

CHINA

Royal palaces form a central part of the architectural tradi-
tion of China from the XIA DYNASTY to the early 20th cen-
tury, as can be seen in the Forbidden City and the Summer
Palace in Beijing. The earliest evidence for a palace struc-
ture is from Phases 3 and 4 at the site of ERLITOU in the
Huang (Yellow) River Valley, dated to the first half of the
second millennium B.C.E. It included an enclosed court
measuring 108 by 100 meters (356 by 330 ft.); the palace
itself was located facing south. The complex was raised on

a stamped-earth platform. A second, slightly smaller palace
was also uncovered during the excavations; a large but
unfortunately looted grave lay within the enclosed
precinct. The early Shang capital of ZHENGZHOU was a large
walled city. Here again the foundations for a large
columned building were found, and these are thought to
be the remains of a palace that was surrounded by a moat.

Shang Palaces

Excavations at Xiaotun, the core of the Late Shang capital
known as ANYANG, have uncovered the foundations for a
large series of buildings raised on stamped-earth founda-
tions. These cluster in three groups, known as the north-
ern, central, and southern. The northern group, which
includes the foundations for 15 buildings, is thought to
be the earliest. The expansion of this royal area then saw
the 21 buildings of the central group constructed, and,
finally, the southern group completed the complex. The
buildings of the last group were associated with many
human and animal sacrificial burials. As it grew, the
palace incorporated earlier royal tombs, including that of
EU HAO, a principal consort to King Wu Ding. An overall
interpretation of this complex leads to the conclusion
that the northern group was the royal residential area,
while the ancestral temples are found in the middle
group. The southern buildings held ritual ceremonials.

One of the palace buildings measures 85 by 15
meters (280 by 50 ft.); another covers an area of 70 by 40
meters. They were raised above the ground on stamped-
earth foundations and built on a north-south axis. Access
to a broad verandah was gained by ascending broad stair-
cases. The principal structure was a long building with a
columned front, and the roof was made of thatch. The
central area included many sacrificial burials, chariot
burials, and subterranean pits for storing grain. Such pits
were also used to house ORACLE-BONE archives.

Western Zhou Palaces

The construction of substantial palaces continued during
the WESTERN ZHOU DYNASTY (1045-771 B.C.E.). Excava-
tions at Fengchu and Zhaochen in Shanxi province have
uncovered the foundations of substantial buildings. At
Fengchu there was an area of nearly 1 ,500 square meters
(1,800 sq. yds.), enclosed on all sides with three court-
yards within. The recovery of oracle bones during the
excavations indicates that this building would have been
occupied by royalty. The entrance pavilion gave access to
a large court, while the flanking buildings were broad
columned passageways linked to eight rooms on each
side, each room three meters (10 ft.) wide and up to seven
meters long. The court was the location for the investiture
ceremonies described in detail in the inscriptions on
bronze vessels. The central hall, reached by a series of
steps, was 17 meters wide and six meters deep and
bisected the complex. Beyond lay two smaller courts,
divided by a covered passageway leading to the rear exter-
nal corridor. The walls and floor were plastered and then

286 royal palaces

decorated with patterns formed by inserting mother of
pearl. A system of subterranean pipes faciUtated drainage.

Excavations at Zhaochen, only 2.5 kilometers from
Fengchu, yielded the remains of a later palace. It also had a
large central hall, demarcated today by the large holes
designed to receive the supporting pillars. One of these
had a diameter of almost two meters; the others were half
this size. Columns of such size could have spanned a con-
siderable space, compatible with the descriptions of grand
halls in the Western Zhou palaces contained in the con-
temporary inscriptions. By this period, the thatched and
plastered roof was replaced by interlocking tiles. These
Western Zhou palaces were screened from the outside and
had enclosed courts bordered by colonnaded walkways
and residential chambers. This pattern was continued, but
on a grander scale, in the EASTERN ZHOU DYNASTY (770-221
B.C.E.) and Spring and Autumn period (770-476 B.C.E.) at
Yong. This was the capital of the state of QIN, and the
palace now incorporated five linked courtyards with a total
length of more than 300 meters. According to a section
from the Shijing, or Book of Odes, this enclosed set of
courtyards was designed to impart the feeling of mystery.

Warring States Palaces

With the progress of the WARRING STATES PERIOD
(475-221 B.C.E.) and the unification of China under the
first emperor, QIN SHIHUANGDI (259-210 B.C.E.), the
nature of the palace changed from indicating mystery to
projecting might. The establishment of large and power-
ful states created a demand for monumentality, and the
new cities that sprang up during the Warring States
period had their own precinct to house the royal palace
and associated buildings. These new palaces were raised
on a structure known as a tai, a high earth platform the
size of which projected the image of royal power. Xu
Wan, the minister of the king of WEI, found it necessary
to remind his sovereign, who nurtured the ambition to
build a tai halfway to heaven, that this would require his
conquering all the neighboring states simply to obtain a
sufficient area of land for the foundations.

LINZI was the capital of the state of QI, which domi-
nated Shandong province during the Warring States
period. The palace there was raised up on a high mound
that still stands 14 meters above its surroundings. This
building and its associated temples occupied a special
walled enclave in the southwestern part of the city. The
palace platform was known as the platform of the duke
Huan. At Xiadu, capital of the remote northwestern state
of YAN in Hebei province, the palace stood atop a mighty
raised mound that is still 20 meters high above the rest of
the city. HANDAN in the state of Zhao also included raised
platforms to elevate the palace well above the surround-
ing cityscape. By building an earth platform and con-
structing terraced pavilions against it, it also became
feasible to make a palace appear much larger and more
impressive than it actually was.

Indeed, the labor required to construct such vast
platforms engendered a critical literature. One such plat-
form in the state of Wei was called the platform that
reaches half way to heaven, and there are numerous refer-
ences in historical sources to rulers using the magnitude
of their palaces to symbolize and project their power.
This is seen in the creation of a new capital at XIANYANG
by SHANG YANG (d. 338 B.C.E.), the great reformer of the
state of Qin. He set aside the traditional task in construc-
tion of a new foundation — building the ancestral tem-
ple — and rather had a new palace, known as the Jique,
built. This was a major innovation: The name translates
as posting a royal order on the gate tower, and it empha-
sizes the new administrative and legal reforms that Shang
Yang was to promulgate. The Jique palace is a monumen-
tal structure built around its earthen core. There are three
stories, the lowest fronted by a long verandah supported
by a row of 38 columns. Above the verandah rise two sets
of chambers that in section are a mirror image of each
other. Excavations there have uncovered a rich assem-
blage of decorated floor tiles bearing geometric motifs
and painted plastered walls. These include images of ele-
gant court women and a chariot drawn by four horses.
This was but the first of many palaces built at Xianyang
over the ensuing century, culminating in the victory of
Qin over its rivals and the creation of the first Chinese
empire under Qin Shihuangdi.

Qin Palaces

The vital symbolic role of the palace during this period of
Warring States is clearly reflected in the writings of SIMA
QIAN in the SHIJI: "Each time the Qin had conquered a
state, a replica of its palace was built on the northern
bank of the Wei River." Thus not only was the defeated
king's palace destroyed, but its image was removed to the
Qin capital at Xianyang. The noble families, those who
survived each conquest, were likewise removed to Qin.
The first emperor, again in the words of Sima Qian, found
his predecessors' palaces too small. He therefore ordered
the construction of his Efang Palace south of the Wei
River. The historian described it as being 500 paces wide
with a terrace large enough to accommodate 10,000 peo-
ple, and from which huge banners could be suspended.
However, this splendid edifice and the myriad other
palaces barely outlived the life of the first emperor. In 206
B.C.E., the buildings were sealed and retained under the
orders of the first ruler of the new HAN DYNASTY, GAOZU.

Han Palaces

Four years later, when he returned there, the entire com-
plex had been razed to the ground. An orgy of looting con-
tinued for months under General Xiang Yu (232-202
B.C.E.), and there was nothing left. Only the Xingle Palace
remained habitable, and this was restored for the new
ruler. The restoration and extensions took 18 months to
complete, and when it was fit again for use, it was renamed
the Changle Palace. The compound measured 2.6 by 2.6

royal palaces 287

kilometers, covering 676 hectares (1,690 acres), and con-
tained 14 halls, two lakes, and the massive bronze statues
that the Qin emperor had cast from the melted-do-wn
■weapons of his adversaries. The Li Ji (Book of Rites) pro-
vides a compelling view of the first major ceremony of the
new dynasty that was held in the Changle Palace: "Before
da-wn, the master of guests, -who was in charge of the rit-
ual, led the participants in order of rank through the gate
leading to the hall. Within the courtyard, chariots and cav-
alry -were dra-wn up. ... At this point the emperor, borne
on a litter, appeared from the inner rooms, the hundred
officials holding banners and announcing his arrival."
Every official or noble present then came for-ward to swear
allegiance, trembling according to the Li Ji, with a-we and
reverence. The emperor concluded: "Today, for the first
time, I realize how exalted a thing it is to be an emperor."

Gaozu rarely used this palace but had a ne-w com-
pound built just to the southwest, called the Weiyang
Palace. The choice of site was highly symbolic, for here
rose a hill in gradual stages, the summit of -which com-
manded a vie-w over CHANG'an and the surrounding land-
scape. Moreover, it -was visible for miles in every direction.
The hill also had a mythological and auspicious aspect, for
it was reputed that a black dragon had gone to the Wei
River to drink and that the top of the hill represented the
dragon's head. Black was also the preferred color of the
new dynasty. The Changle Palace represented continuity
^vith the previous and hated Qin dynasty, but it was
designed to symbolize the new grandeur of Han. The hill
■was converted into a series of ascending terraces with the
main hall on the peak. The distance from the entrance to
the summit, which involved passing through three succes-
sive courts, -was more than 350 meters (1,155 ft.). Indeed,
such was the scale of the complex, -which is no-w quite
destroyed, that the emperor remonstrated -with the head
architect and in words recorded by Sima Qian, the grand
historian, complained: "The empire is still in turmoil. . . .
We cannot tell whether we will have final success. What
do you mean by constructing palaces like this on such an
extravagant scale?" The answer from Xiao He reveals the
ultimate purpose: "If the Son of Heaven does not dwell in
magnificence and beauty, he will have no way to manifest
his authority, nor -will he leave any foundation for his heirs
to build upon."

The Weiyang Palace was embellished and expanded
over the course of the ensuing reigns, but during the rule
of Gaozu, according to the surviving texts, it included the
central hall and two pillar-gates. Much new building at
Chang'an also took place during the 54-year reign of
Emperor Han WUDI (157-87 B.C.E.) After a period of peace
and prosperity, this ruler set in train an expansionary pol-
icy of imperial conquest and at home authorized a huge
building program. Within the city walls of Chang'an, three
new palaces emerged: the Mingguang Palace (palace of
brilliant light), the Bei, or Northern, Palace, and the Gui,
or Cassia, Palace. Beyond the -walls and to the southwest.

he ordered the construction of Shanglin Park, which incor-
porated palatial buildings around Kunming Lake.

Shanglin Park

Contemporary records provide an image of this remark-
able complex. It housed animals from every point of the
compass, including a rhinoceros from Thailand, white
elephants, and albino deer, each accompanied by a view-
ing pavilion. It was studded with more than 70 pleasure
palaces large enough to house thousands. The extensive
Kunming Lake was embellished with three large stone
statutes, one of a whale to indicate that it represented the
sea. All three have been recovered through archaeological
research.

Ganquan Palace

The most extraordinary construction of all, ho-wever, -was
the Ganquan Palace, located 60 kilometers to the north-
west of the capital. Han Wudi was an enthusiastic fol-
lo-wer of soothsayers and astrologers, one of -whom, Shao
Weng, found that the emperor had suffered the bereave-
ment of one his favorite consorts. Shao Weng promised
that the ruler would see her again and ensured that he
did through the medium of a shadow play. Delighted,
Wudi favored him and responded when Shao Weng rec-
ommended the construction of a palace "patterned after
the shapes of the spirits." There, he declared, the emperor
would be able to communicate with the spirit -world.
Thus was constructed the Ganquan Palace, the palace of
s-weet springs. Huge to-wers were built and a terrace that
was said to pierce the clouds. Another soothsayer. Gong-
sun Qin, recommended that the emperor lay out jujubes
and dried meat to attract the immortals, who liked to live
in such high pavilions.

Wudi's Last Palace

The final edifice raised by Han Wudi at Chang'an -was
kno-wn as the Jianzhang Palace. Contemporary accounts
describe its appearance. The central Jade Hall, for exam-
ple, -was built of -white marble. The entrance portal stood
60 meters (198 ft.) high. A bronze pillar supported an
immortal holding aloft a bowl to collect dew, which,
mixed -with po-wdered jade, was given to the emperor.
The complex -was conceived as a paradisiacal realm for
Wudi to inhabit.

Wang Mang's Palaces

WANG MANG (45 B.C.E. -23 C.E.) was the nephew of the
dowager empress Wang and thus a highly ranked mem-
ber of the imperial court. He seized the throne in 9 C.E.
and founded his own XIN (Ne-w) DYNASTY. He swept away
the buildings of Han Wudi and recycled the materials in
advancing his own plans. These involved the construc-
tion of the Mingtang (bright) hall to the south of the city
-walls, a monument based on Confucian ideals for the
-worship of the ancestors.

With the death of Wang Mang and after a long and
bitter civil war, Guang Wudi (5 B.C.E. -57 C.E.) emerged

288 royal palaces

as the new emperor. Chang'an had been destroyed and
the imperial tombs looted. Guang Wudi moved the capi-
tal downstream to LUOYANG. The walled city accommo-
dated two palaces at the northern and southern borders,
each covering an area of 1,300 by 700 meters (1,430 by
770 yds.). They were linked by a straight, elevated corri-
dor four kilometers long. This complex lacked the mag-
nificence and spiritual aura of Chang'an and did not
survive beyond 190 C.E., when the whole city was razed
to the ground.

JAPAN

The earliest excavated palaces in Japan belong to the
seventh-century YAMATO state, but an important inscrip-
tion on the Imariyama sword attests to their presence at
an earlier date. The text says that the owner of the sword
was head of the sword bearers when the court of the great
king Wakatakeru was in the palace of Shiki. This sword,
which was from Tomb 1 on a keyhole kojun, or burial
mound, is dated to 471 C.E.

Palaces in Nara Basin
Palaces reflected the social relations in the ruling elite.
Emperors tended to have multiple consorts, who would
live in their natal region for some years after a relationship
was formalized, so the emperor would move his residence
from time to time, living in one of several relatively mod-
est palaces. Investigations at Asuka in the southern Nara
Basin, which begin in 1951, uncovered foundations of
what may have been the Itabuki Palace, occupied in 643
C.E. It is difficult without the precise dating evidence sup-
plied by the MOKKAN, wooden slips containing dated
records, to be sure which of many palaces mentioned in
the NIHONGI correspond to foundations revealed through
archaeology. The same problem of ascription applies to
the Naniwa site, where two layers have been found. It has
been suggested that the earlier represents the remains of
the Nagara Toyosaki Palace of Kotoku, who reigned
645-654 C.E. The Nihongi recorded that on the ninth day
of December 645 C.E., the emperor "removed the capital
to Toyosaki in Nagara at Naniwa." By autumn 652, the
palace was complete. It was clearly an impressive struc-
ture, for the Nihongi noted: "The building of the palace
was completed. It is impossible to describe the appearance
of the palace halls." Excavations have revealed the layout
of this complex. The royal residence, two structures
joined by a passageway, the whole covering an area of 113
by 123 meters (373 by 406 ft.), lay at the north. To the
south a massive gate opened onto a courtyard containing
official administrative buildings. On each side of the gate
there stood octagonal towers. This court was walled and
could be entered by a further gate on the southern wall.
The records note that the palace was destroyed by fire,
and this has been confirmed by the quantities of ash
encountered during the excavations. With the death of
Kotoku, the palace was abandoned and moved, under the

emperor TENJI (r. 668-671 C.E.), to Otsu north of Nara
city. It was occupied for only a few years until the
emperor's death; its location was identified in 1993.

Palaces in Capital Cities

Toward the end of the seventh century a major policy
change saw the construction of large and visually impres-
sive capital cities, first at FUJIWARA and in 710 C.E. at
HEIJO-KYO. Each had at its center a palace compound that
combined living quarters for the ruler, an audience hall,
and administrative offices for the bureaucracy. There can,
therefore, be no doubt as to the authenticity of the palace
at Fujiwara, the capital between 686 and 707 C.E. built
under the orders of the empress JITO (r. 686-97 C.E.).
Measuring nearly a kilometer square and located centrally
in the new city, it was surrounded by a large stone wall
flanked on the inside and on the exterior by moats. The
royal residence was placed in the northern part of this
precinct, and although largely destroyed, it is known to
have covered an area of 305 by 350 meters (1007 by 1155
ft.). To the south lay an impressive audience hall and
beyond it the buildings of the state administration. Much
energy was expended in the construction of this palace,
including the moving of 4,000 wooden posts seven meters
high from a distance of 54 kilometers. However, with the
death of Emperor Mommu in 707 C.E., this city was aban-
doned in favor of a new capital at Nara. The choice of the
new capital and palace was determined by several factors.
First, GEOMANCY and divination decreed the most auspi-
cious site. This happened to be precisely to the north of
Fujiwara, the existing capital, and 20 kilometers distant.
In more mundane terms, the site provided easy and direct
riverine access to the Inland Sea to the west.

The capital at Nara was longer lived than its prede-
cessors, and the energy expended in its construction
exceeded that at Fujiwara. Massive tree trunks had to be
rafted to the site, stone quarried, and thousands of
ceramic tiles fired. Modeled on the Tang capital of
Chang'an, then the largest city in the world, the walled
palace at Nara covered an area of 1.3 by 1.0 kilometers
and was entered by 12 gateways. Archaeologists have
identified through the recovery of mokkan the founda-
tions of the war ministry at the southwest corner of the
complex and the imperial stables, including barns for the
storage of hay. The kitchens were associated with huge
wells, and the status of the palace as a virtual city within
a city is further to be seen in the presence of processing
plants, such as that for the preparation of rice wine. Plea-
sure gardens were laid out on a grand scale. There were
two distinct parts of the royal palace complex, the west-
ern and the eastern. These were constructed over a large
kofun, or keyhole tomb, that had to be removed. Both
parts of the palace were modified over the course of time,
leading to the presence of two construction layers. Dur-
ing the earlier phase, the western palace had two com-

Rupnagar 289

pounds. One contained four long halls of unknown func-
tion. The northern section probably contained an audi-
ence hall. The eastern part was more complex with three
precincts, the northern one the living quarters of the
emperor. A more complex series of buildings was con-
structed during the second phase, including an additional
compound on the eastern section. The two new halls and
those in the compound to the north were designated for
administrative officials' use. These in turn gave way to
the audience hall, with the imperial residence beyond
that. It has been suggested that the construction of two
separate palaces was a deliberate attempt to copy the lay-
out of the Tang palaces of Chang'an in China.
See also CONFUCIUS.

Rudravarman (c. 514-550 C.E.) Rudravarman (Protege
of Siva) is mentioned in Chinese records as being the king of
Funan who sent a tribute mission to China in 519 C.E.

He was the younger son of JAYAVARMAN OF FUNAN and
overthrew his older brother to claim the throne. Michael
Vickery has noted that succession of the younger son is
not unusual in Angkorian politics. An INSCRIPTION from
Kdei Ang dated 667 C.E. gives the names of successive
members of an elite family and the kings they served. It
begins -with Brahmadatta, a retainer of King Rudravar-
man of Funan, and then proceeds to list those who
served early rulers of a CHENLA kingdom. Not only does
this text confirm the existence of a king Rudravarman
detailed in the Chinese records, but it also reveals a
thread of political continuity between Funan and
Chenla.

Rummindei See lumbini.

Rupnagar See ropar.

Sahri-Bahlol Sahri-Bahlol is a walled city associated
with a number of extramural temple mounds located in
the Peshawar district of northwest Pakistan. It -was first
examined in the 1860s, at a time when the looting of
such sites for collectible items of sculpture for sale to
members of the occupying British army was a popular
pastime. It was excavated again between 1906 and I9I0
and the foundations of two Buddhist temples were
uncovered. The most fruitful period of research, however,
took place under the direction of SIR AUREL STEIN in
1911-12. He excavated a series of monasteries and Bud-
dhist shrines, the latter the source of more than 1,000
stone sculptures of the Gandharan school (first to fifth
century C.E.). The solid stone foundations of Buddhist
halls and temples were accompanied by stucco orna-
ments around the bases and by many stone statues. The
latter included images of the Buddha and of BODHISATTVAS
with clear Hellenistic influence, for until the establish-
ment of the Gandharan school of art in this region, the
Buddha was depicted symbolically, not as a person. At
Sahri-Bahlol, the Buddha takes on a clearly Western
image. Such statues also incorporate miniature represen-
tations of the benefactors, who are often seen worshiping.
The Gandharan tradition was extinguished with the inva-
sion of this area by the White Huns in the fifth century
C.E. It is said that the Hun king Mihirakula destroyed
1,600 Buddhist foundations in this area in the sixth cen-
tury, even though the foundations of Sahri-Bahlol were
among the architectural wonders of Asia.
See also GANDHARA.

Sa Huynh culture The Sa Huynh culture encompasses
a series of occupation and cemetery sites located along

the coast of Vietnam from the Hai Van Pass to Saigon.
The Sa Huynh groups occupied the same territory as the
later Cham states. The Cham language is Austronesian,
with its closest parallels in Borneo. All available evidence
points to a relatively late intrusive settlement of this
region by sea from Borneo, a move that resulted first in
the culture of Sa Huynh, then in the development of the
CHAM CIVILIZATION. This culture dates to c. 300 B.C.E.-200
C.E. and is particularly distinguished by the cremation
burial rite involving the interment of human ashes in
large lidded vessels, accompanied by a range of offerings.
This contrasts with a preference for inhumation burial in
other Iron Age societies of mainland Southeast Asia. Over
time, cemeteries grew to include many hundreds of mor-
tuary jars. The urnfield at Hang Gon near Saigon covered
an area of about 100 by 50 meters (330 by 165 ft.), and
many burial offerings were ritually broken. Smashed pot-
tery vessels were placed inside the large urns. Polished
stone adzes were damaged, bowls deformed, and even the
sockets of iron axes broken. Ear pendants and beads of
imported carnelian, agate, olivine, and zircon were found
at Hang Gon, as well as blue and red glass beads and a
solitary bead of gold. There was also a distinctive
nephrite ear pendant representing a double-headed ani-
mal. Iron working is documented in the form of slag, as
well in axes and swords.

A major excavation at Giong Co Va near Saigon has
uncovered 339 jar burials and 10 inhumation graves. The
dead were interred in vertically placed jars often in a
seated position and were accompanied by a wide variety
of grave goods, foremost being 21 double-animal-headed
ear ornaments in glass and jade. There were also beads
and bangles of shell, exotic stone, and glass, and some
ornaments were fashioned of gold. Another cemetery of

290

Samguk Yusa 291

Giong Phet furnished many carnelian, jade, and agate
beads, indicating late prehistoric maritime trade. The
strategic location of these sites near the Mekong Delta
and the wealth of exotic ornaments represent a critical
late prehistoric stage in the subsequent formation of the
FUNAN state (c. 100-550 C.E.)- The distribution of dis-
tinctive double-headed ear ornaments, for example,
reveals wide maritime exchange links including with Tai-
■wan, central Thailand, and the Philippines.
See also CHENLA.

Sailendra The Sailendra (Kings of the Mountain)
dynasty ruled the KEDU PLAIN of central Java from the
middle of the eighth century C.E. for at least a hundred
years. The rulers followed MAHAYANA (or High) BUDDHISM
and -were responsible for a group of extraordinary monu-
ments that still defy full understanding. Foremost among
these is BOROBUDUR, a temple on 10 levels, which pre-
scribes the path to enlightenment on its successive stages.
The success of the Sailendras may well have been related
to their control over irrigated rice fields of the rich Kedu
Plain and their attachment to BUDDHISM as a means of
legitimizing their po-wer. They styled themselves MAHARA-
JAS great kings, in INSCRIPTIONS.

Saimei (594-661 C.E.) Saimei was the tenno, or
sovereign, of the YAMATO state in Japan.

She is counted as the 35th and 37th tenno because she
ruled first under the name Kogyoku from 642 to 645
and subsequently as Saimei from 655 C.E. until her
death six years later. She was the mother of the later
emperors TENJI and TEMMU, and during her reign she
organized military expeditions to extend her kingdom
or to assist her Korean ally, the state of PAEKCHE. She
died while in Kyushu during the preparation for an
expedition to Korea that led to the naval disaster for
Yamato at the Battle of Hakusukinoe.

Saivism Saivism is the cult of SIVA who, with Vishnu, is
one of the major gods of the Hindu religion. He is often
associated -with power and may have been a god of the
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION, in which SEALS bearing a god
sitting in Siva's accustomed yogic position have been
identified. His symbol, the phallus, or LINGAM, has been
found at sites such as MOHENJO DARO in Pakistan. He later
■was combined with the god Rudra, who symbolized the
forces of destruction. Thus Siva ultimately represented
both destructive power and regeneration. He was married
to Devi, and Skanda and GANESA -were his sons. The wor-
ship of Siva is widespread in India, and he also became
very popular in the ANGKOR civilization of Cambodia.
There, the king and Siva were often linked by name and
symbolized in the state lingam. RUDRAVARMAN, for exam-
ple, -was an early king of the state of FUNAN.

Sakas The Sakas or Scythians originated as nomadic
groups on the Eurasian steppes who, pressed from the
east, moved to the -west during the third and second cen-
turies B.C.E. until they reached a solid wall of Parthian
resistance in the region of the Caspian Sea. They then
moved south into north-western Pakistan and established
there a state in the early first century B.C.E. The principal
evidence for the names of the Saka kings is derived from
their coins, which -were minted at TAXILA in Pakistan and
Puskalavati. The earliest, named Maues, styled himself
Maharaja (great king) Moasa on his coins. Some of his
early issues had his image overstruck on coins of his BAC-
TRIAN GREEK predecessor Apollodotus II. He was followed
by Azes I, Azilises, and Azes II. The Sakas were tolerant
of the religious beliefs of others and showed considerable
enthusiasm for BUDDHISM. They also followed many of
the customs of the Bactrian Greeks, particularly in their
COINAGE, architecture, art, and town planning. At the city
of SIRKAP, Taxila, they continued to follow the Greek city
layout. However, it is also possible to detect Indian influ-
ence in some of their styles and motifs. The Saka rule of
this area, centered on Taxila, has been dated between 50
B.C.E. and 30 C.E., after which the area was taken by the
Indo-Parthian king Gondophares. The Saka dating system
began in 78 C.E. and was -widely used in India, as well as
in Angkorian and CHENLA INSCRIPTIONS.

Sambor Prei Kuk See ishanapura.

Samguk Sagi The Samguk Sagi (History of the THREE
kingdoms) was compiled by Kim Pu-Sik (1075-1151
C.E.) during the reign of King Injong (1122-46 C.E.) and
is the principal historic source for the development of
early Korean states. Based on earlier documents that have
not survived, it provides the foundation date for each of
the three kingdoms of KOGURYO, PAEKCHE, and SHILLA and
then lists the respective kings. It is also an invaluable
source of information on battles, regulations for agricul-
ture and IRRIGATION, and trade relations with China.
However, the author had the objective of providing legiti-
macy for the Koryu dynasty of Korea, and his dates can-
not be relied on other than in the most general sense.

When presenting his work to the king, Kim PUSIK
recorded how the Chinese had consistently produced his-
tories of their dynasties, referring in particular to the
Spring and Autumn Annals (CHUNQIU FANLu) of Lu written
by CONFUCIUS. He acknowledged royal patronage in the
preparation of his lengthy work and the need to match
Chinese models.

Samguk Yusa The Samguk Yusa (Memorabilia of the
Three Kingdoms) is a historic work on the history of
Korea that was compiled by the monk Iryon (1206-89
C.E.) and added to by the Confucian scholar Pack
Munbo, -who died in 1374. It contains information not

292 Samhitas

referred to in the SAMGUK SAGl, with a strong Buddhist
emphasis. For example, it is the first document of Korea
to mention the mythical founder of the state, Tangun.
The Confucian ethic is clearly seen in the introduction to
this -work, -where Iryon wrote: "Sages of the past enabled
states to flourish through propriety and music and fos-
tered learning through humaneness and righteousness."
See also CONFUCIUS; SHILLA.

Samhitas The Samhitas include the four sacred Hindu
hymnals known as the RIG-VEDA, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda,
and Atharva Veda. These are essentially religious hymns
or chants, the oldest of which, the Rig- Veda, has consid-
erable antiquity. It is often placed in the second millen-
nium B.C.E., and some authorities maintain that it entered
India with Aryan invaders, who destroyed the INDUS VAL-
LEY CIVILIZATION. This would have occurred in the early
to mid-second millennium B.C.E. However, other authori-
ties place the Rig-Veda within the Indus civilization itself,
giving it an antiquity as early as the mid-third millen-
nium B.C.E. This dating dilemma has not been solved but
is of considerable interest. The Rig-Veda often mentions
fire worship and a stimulating drink known as soma. Fire
altars have been documented archaeologically in Indus
sites, such as KALIBANGAN. The curious receptacles often
represented on Indus SEALS have been interpreted as con-
tainers for soma. Again, the Indus civilization sites pro-
vide evidence for a bull cult and the manufacture of stone
phalluses (lingams), both of which continue to be associ-
ated with the Hindu god SIVA. With time, the Samhitas
assumed a central position in Indian religious develop-
ment and were the subject of lengthy interpretation
works, known as Brahmanas, and the philosophical
implications were explored in a series of works called
Upanishads.

The Rig- Veda described many gods based on natural
forces, but INDRA was preeminent. He was responsible for
the creation of the human race vi^hen he killed the demon
serpent Vritra and released the elements vital for exis-
tence: heat, light, and water. Worship and sacrifice to the
gods required the chanting of sacred hymns, undertaken
by a person known as a Brahman. The Brahmans, those
who had the knowledge and power to fulfill rituals, ulti-
mately occupied a central position in society.

Samudragupta (335-380 c.e.) Samudmgupta was hy
common consent one of the greatest kings of the Gupta
dynasty, if not the greatest.

His military successes expanded the GUPTA EMPIRE to
cover much of modern India, victories recorded in an
INSCRIPTION at Allahabad. One of his coins has a text in
SANSKRIT, written in the BRAHMI script, which describes
him as "the invincible king, victor of a hundred battles."
A confirmed Hindu, he performed the rite of horse sacri-
fice and was entitled maharajadhiraja, or great king of

kings. Another coin issue shows him performing this rit-
ual. Indeed, one of his enduring achievements was the
establishment of the monetary system of the Gupta
empire. Stimulated by the Kushan COINAGE of northwest
India, which in turn was based on the Roman system,
Samudragupta issued coins known as dinara, after the
Roman dinarius. While clearly a most successful leader in
warfare, he also had a musical talent, seen in his rare
coins portraying him playing the lyre, accompanied by
the text "Maharajadhiraja Sri Samudragupta."

Sanchi Sanchi, in Madhya Pradesh near the city of
Bhopal, is one of the most important and impressive Bud-
dhist centers in India. It was discovered in 1818 by of the
Bengal Cavalry and was soon despoiled by treasure
hunters, looters, collectors, and vandals who, among
other acts, destroyed an Asokan column to make a sugar-
cane press. Four years after its discovery. Sir Herbert Mad-
dock drove a shaft to the center of Stupas I and 2 without
finding anything of importance, instead causing great
damage. In the 1840s, however. Lieutenant F Maisey initi-
ated the recording of the temples and sculptures. The
great stupa of Sanchi, decorated with reliefs depicting the
life of the Buddha, commands a hill near the Betwa River.
It is associated with an Asokan column and a monastery,
and the original third century B.C.E. foundation clearly
owes much to the zeal of the MAURYA EMPIRE king ASOKA.
It was one of the many hundreds of INSCRIPTIONS at this
site that provided the key to the translation of the Asokan
columns in 1837 by JAMES PRINSER

MARSHALES EXCAVATIONS,
REEIEFS, AND SCUEPTURE

Major excavations were undertaken on the Sanchi Hill by
SIR JOHN MARSHALL in 1912. At that stage, only the Great
Stupa and one or two walls were visible; the remainder of
the site was covered by debris and concealed by thick
vegetation. Marshall's excavation of the foundations of
the Asokan column, together with the earlier discovery of
a brick core to the stupa, convinced him that the brick
represented the original structure, probably begun in the
third century B.C.E. under Asoka, but that the facing
stone represented a later enlargement. The encircling wall
of massive stones and the four toranas (gateways) were
added during the first century B.C.E. Two further stupas
were built later, one during the first century B.C.E. and a
third during the early first century C.E. The Great Stupa is
surrounded by a railing incorporating four toranas that
stand at the pinnacle of the art of this period. They are
decorated with narrative reliefs depicting events in the
life of the Buddha and JATAKA TALES or legends of his pre-
vious lives. The Buddha himself is never depicted as a
person but is represented in the form of footprints, an
empty throne, or the "wheel of the law" (dharmacakra).
Others provide illuminating scenes of war, with battle
elephants, the walls of a besieged city, and groups of

Sankisa 293

The four gateways at the Great Stupa of Sanchi were decorated with scenes taken from the life of the Buddha. This was one of the
major Buddhist centers in India, patronized by Emperor Asoka. (O Archlvo Iconografico, S.A./CORBIS)

archers. Horse cavalry and chariots join the siege, -while
the defenders reply from the battlements with bows and
arro-ws or repel attackers with clubs. These gateways also
incorporate yaksha figures, female symbols of fertility
that are ent-wined in a tree and again represent the pinna-
cle of early Buddhist sculpture. More than 400 inscrip-
tions give details of the history of the site. One, for
example, records the donation of one of the reliefs by a
guild of ivory workers. Others, found on reliquaries,
record the names of the monks who led missionary jour-
neys at the behest of Asoka. Another text of Asoka for-
bade the development of schisms in the Buddhist
congregation.

Two smaller stupas are also found on the hilltop. One
of these, Stupa 3, was examined earlier by SIR ALEXANDER
CUNNINGHAM, who identified STEATITE caskets containing
the relics of t-wo of Buddha's disciples, Sariputra and
Mahamogalana, together with the foundation offerings.
These sacred stupas were located among a cluster of tem-
ples and monasteries. The latter form a square courtyard
around -which are rows of monks' cells. The center of
Sanchi had a long history. A Gupta period temple -was con-

structed in the early fifth century, and the complex as a
whole remained active until at least the 11th century, giv-
ing the complex a history well in excess of a millennium.

Sankisa Sankisa is a large city site located in the
Ganges (Ganga) Valley of northern India. JAMES PRINSEF
sought the city of Sankisa by its stated relationship to the
kno-wn center of MATHURA and identified it as a huge
mound that was subsequently examined by SIR ALEXAN-
DER CUNNINGHAM and K. N. Sastri. This site is known as
Sankasya in the RAMAYANA and is venerated by Buddhists,
because it was here that the Buddha descended from
heaven by means of a gold ladder. Hence, it became a pil-
grimage site. The Chinese traveler XUANZANG described
an Asokan pillar and several stupas there. The capital of
this pillar survives to this day, and Cunningham identi-
fied one of the mounds at the site as a monastery. The
city itself -was enclosed by a wall with three entrances,
■while the excavations have revealed prehistoric founda-
tions to the site, followed by layers dated to the period of
MAHAJANAPADAS (600-350 B.C.E.) and the SAKAS (50
B.C.E.-30 C.E.).

294 Sannathi

Sannathi Sannathi is a fortified city covering about 40
hectares (100 acres) in Karnataka state, southern India. It
is located in the valley of the Bhima River, and despite a
lack of excavations, surface finds of coins reveal it to have
been a center during the SATAVAHANA dynasty (late first
century B.C.E. -third century C.E.)- Other finds include
carnelian beads, shell bangles, and the foundations of a
stupa dating to the first two centuries C.E.

Sanskrit Sanskrit is an Indo-European language belong-
ing to the Indie branch of the Indo-Aryan subgroup of
this family. The pioneering work of Indologists, such as
SIR WILLIAM JONES (1746-94) and sir CHARLES WILKINS
(1749-1836), led to the realization that Sanskrit has close
genetic links with Latin and Greek, leading scholars to
identify the Indo-European language family. Some have
suggested that Sanskrit was introduced into India during
the mid-second millennium B.C.E., for it is the language of
the RIG-VEDA. In the fourth century B.C.E. , a grammarian
called Panini worked to perfect and refine the language,
and he gave it its name, which means "cultivated" or "per-
fected." Classical Sanskrit, as opposed to the earlier Vedic
version, remains to this day the literary and priestly lan-
guage of Hinduism and is traditionally written in the
Devanagari alphabet, which originated ultimately in the
BRAHMI script.

Sanskrit as a priestly and refined language existed
alongside related vernacular languages, known as
PRAKRITS. The best known of the latter is PALI. Curiously,
the early INSCRIPTIONS of India, particularly those of the
Mauryan emperor ASOKA (268-235 B.C.E.), were written
in regional Prakrits, whereas Sanskrit texts appeared later.
The earliest Sanskrit inscriptions in India date to the first
century B.C.E. and are from Ayodhya, Ghosundi, and
Hathibada. These record temple foundations. The San-
skrit inscriptions from MATHURA belong to the first and
second centuries C.E. The earliest of these, inscribed early
in the first century C.E., again records a temple dedica-
tion. The Junagadh inscription of the WESTERN SATRAP
King Rudradaman, dated to 150 C.E., is widely seen as an
important text because of the standard Sanskrit employed
and its poetic meter. Sanskrit was first employed in
inscriptions rather later in southern India than in the
north; the earliest examples are from NAGARJUNAKONDA
and date to the late third century C.E. Sanskrit was pre-
ferred when the text used poetic rhythms rather than a
prose style. After the fourth century C.E. in southern
India, Prakrit inscriptions ceased, and Sanskrit domi-
nated. This trend was expedited from the same century
under the GUPTA EMPIRE, when Sanskrit became the pre-
ferred language of virtually all the inscriptions in their
extensive domains.

This ascendance has important implications when
considering the inscriptions of Southeast Asia. The earli-
est of these, from VO CANH in southern coastal Vietnam,

was written in Sanskrit, as were those of the coastal state
of EUNAN. Indeed, Sanskrit was the preferred language of
all the major inscriptions of CHENLA and the kingdom of
ANGKOR, in Cambodia, although Old KHMER was also
used in subsidiary texts on many occasions. The quality
of the Sanskrit employed was admirable, as seen in the
long dedicatory inscriptions of the temples of the PRE RUP,
PREAH KHAN, and TA PROHM at Angkor.
See also MAURYA EMPIRE.

Sanxingdui Sanxingdui is a huge walled city of the
SHU kingdom in China. In its own right, Sanxingdui
stands out as a massive early urban center and capital of
the long-lived Shu state. The site, however, is best known
for two remarkable discoveries made quite by accident in
July and August 1986 by local workers excavating for
clay to make bricks. On July 18, they encountered
ancient jades and bronzes. Archaeologists were called to
the site, and excavations proceeded at once. The artifacts
were contained in a pit about 4.5 by 3.5 meters (15 by 12
ft.) in extent and 1.6 meters deep. The uppermost layer
in the pit contained about three cubic meters (10.5 cu.
ft.) of burnt bones from cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats
together with 13 elephant tusks. The excavators then
encountered jades in the form of yazhang blades and ge
daggers before reaching the basal contents. These were
objects of bronze, gold, and jade. The sheer quantity of
the finds, all of which had been burned before deposi-
tion, was stunning. There were 178 items of bronze, four
gold artifacts, 129 jades, and other objects of stone and
pottery. Exotic cowry shells were also present. Radiocar-
bon dates indicated that this pit dates to the 13th or I2th
century B.C.E.

A few days later, again by chance when digging for
BRICK earth, a second pit was discovered about 40
meters from the first. It measured 5.3. by 2.3 meters and
was as deep as the first. This pit was slightly later in
date, perhaps belonging to the 12th or the 11th century
B.C.E., and it was also markedly richer in terms of the
burnt offerings. The bottom layer included relatively
small items of bronze, jade, gold, and stone, including
BRONZE CASTINGS of trees and diamond-shaped fittings.
The next layer had the most extraordinary range of
finds among a unique assemblage. There were a gigantic
bronze statue, 44 bronze heads, bronze masks, a large
bronze tree complete with birds perched on the
branches, and bronze vessels containing jade and cowry
shells. This layer was capped by 60 elephant tusks, but,
on this occasion, no burnt bone. The final count
revealed 735 bronze items, 61 gold, 486 jade, and sev-
eral items of TURQUOISE. There were also tigers' teeth
and ivory. The name Sanxingdui means "three star
mounds," so-called because three mounds in the city
resemble a stellar constellation. It is located 40 kilome-
ters north of Chengdu in Sichuan province, southwest

Sanxingdui 293

China. The Chengdu Plain is reno-wned for the cultiva-
tion of rice, and the presence of LONGSHAN CULTURE
walled settlements that anticipate the local development
of a powerful state is now well attested at Baodun,
Mangcheng, and Yufu. The walls of Sanxingdui enclose
an area of about 450 hectares (1125 acres) and lie adja-
cent to the southern bank of the Yazi River. The Mamu
River flows through the site.

EARLY DISCOVERY OF JADES

In 1929, a pit containing a large number of jades was dis-
covered within the city precincts by the members of the
Yan family. They kept the discovery secret for several
years and then sold them to the Chendu antiques market.
An English priest, V. H. Donnithorne, managed to per-
suade local authorities to get at least some of them into
their possession and place them in the museum of Huaxi
University. In 1964 and 1974, further jades were discov-
ered, leading local archaeologists to conclude that this
site had been a jade manufacturing center, for some were
unfinished.

EXCAVATIONS OF CITY

In 1980, excavations of the three star mounds revealed
that they were part of the city walls, made by following
the same technique of stamped earth known from the
well-documented Shang cities to the northeast. These
walls were massive, up to 47 meters (155 ft.) wide at the
base, and probably up to 10 meters high, fronted by a
deep moat. The walls are dated to about 1400-1300
B.C.E. Archaeological inquiries have revealed that the city
had a long history, beginning 6,000 years ago with a
Neolithic settlement. This was followed by occupation
dating to the same period as the XIA and early SHANG
dynasties as seen at ERLITOU in the central plains. The
third and fourth phases were contemporary, respectively,
with the Middle and Late Shang dynasties. Shang
dynasty ORACLE BONES refer to a state called Shu, and at
least one Shang ruler. King Wu Ding, campaigned
against them, although the capitals are more than 1,000
kilometers apart. The wall was constructed during the
period of the early Shang state, and the site was appar-
ently deserted by the early Zhou period. There were
domestic dwellings in the city and large halls. But the
city also spread beyond the walls, to cover an area of at
least 15 square kilometers (6 sq. mi.).

Excavations in 1980, 1982, and 1986 over an area of
1,325 meters uncovered many items of jade, ceramics,
lacquer, and bronze, allowing activities within the walls
and beyond them to be assessed. Specialized craft activi-
ties were located in the vicinity of the city, including
ceramic production. The discovery of many unfinished
jades also indicates specialist lapidaries. By contrast, the
bronze-casting workshops were located inside the city,
where fragments of clay molds and bronze residues have
been recovered.

THE PITS' CONTENTS

The purpose of the pits has been the subject of consider-
able speculation and has stimulated further archaeologi-
cal inquiries. The most exciting possibility is that they
were associated in some way with the royal burials of the
kings of Shu, but as yet no such tombs have been uncov-
ered. The burning of the contents of the pits, despite
their intrinsic value, rarity, and beauty, strongly suggests a
sacrificial or ritual purpose. Many of the items were
deliberately damaged before being buried. There are, for
example, bronzes that have lost their form entirely
through extreme heat. Other items were probably compo-
nents of artifacts made of different materials, some of
which have perished. This makes it unlikely that the pits
were intended for storing precious items, despite the fact
that the pit discovered in 1929 and another deposit inves-
tigated in 1988 contained jade cong tubes and bi disks
neatly stacked one on another. The majority opinion
among specialists now is that they were probably pits
associated with sacrificial ceremonies connected with
royally inspired rituals. The quality of the offerings is
only compatible with extreme wealth, and some of the
smaller objects themselves provide clues. There are for
example, many yazhang jade blades. One of these is rep-
resented on a small bronze figure seen in a kneeling pos-
ture from Pit 2. In the same pit was another kneeling
figure supporting a zun bronze vessel on his head. Both
seem to indicate a form of worship or sacrifice. Shang
oracle-bone texts and later Zhou records provide support-
ing evidence, for they describe the burning of sacrificial
items and their burial. This interpretation, however, is
not a final one. There are also records that a violent
change of dynasty could be accompanied by the destruc-
tion of the sacred symbols of the previous rulers. In this
context, it is possible that the pits represent the seizure of
power in the Shu state by Duyu, who established the
fourth dynasty when he defeated his predecessor, Yufu.
This interpretation does not explain the probable gap in
time between the two pits, however. Whatever the expla-
nation, the contents of the pits provide an unrivaled
opportunity to examine the beliefs and technical exper-
tise of a major but little known contemporary of the
Shang state.

Unique Bronze Figure

The most extraordinary of all bronzes is from Pit 2. It is a
complete statue of a man 2.61 meters (8.6 ft.) high and
weighing 180 kilograms (396 lbs.). The figure stands on
top of a four-legged stool, the legs of which are four styl-
ized animal heads, and this, in turn, stands on a bronze
support. The human figure is 1.8 meters (5.9 ft.) high
and is the only bronze casting of a person known from
this period of Chinese history. The face resembles many
others from the pit, which might themselves have
belonged to complete statues before they were broken up
and damaged by intense heat. It has a disturbing, mask-

296 Sanxingdui

like face. The man -wears a circular crown under an elabo-
rate headdress, anklets, and three bangles. His outer tunic
is richly decorated -with dragons, animal heads, and
crowns. It lies over another tunic that ends in pointed
swallowlike tails and is again enriched with dragon and
animal-head designs. A band runs across his chest and is
tied at the back. But it is the arms and hands that attract
immediate attention, for they are larger than life-size and
are so positioned that they must have formerly held
something large and heavy. The curvature between the
two hands and the size of the intended grip make it likely
that he held an elephant's tusk. Sixty-seven tusks had
been placed in the same pit. The motifs cast into the
clothing and stool strongly recall those found on Shang
RITUAL BRONZE VESSELS, and the casting technique was
also similar, for the different parts of the statue -were cast
separately in piece molds over a clay core before being
joined together.

There are other human figures in bronze, but none so
complete as this specimen. One has survived only from
the waist up, but it still stands to a height of almost half a
meter (1.6 ft.). It too has hands outstretched as if to hold
something impressively large, and its tunic is finely deco-
rated -with a pattern of dragons and meanders. There is an
impressive animal headdress with a huge mouth, eyes,
and ears standing out prominently. A third figure is a man
with a bird's feet, standing atop two highly stylized bird
figures. The human, of which only the body from the
waist down has survived, wears a fringed kilt or skirt cov-
ered in a geometric set of bands infilled -with spirals.
Instead of human feet, the person has robust bird talons,
each of which grasps a bird head on top of a long and
decorated body.

Unique Bronze Trees

A second unique type of bronze takes the form of a tree,
standing on a circular base and reaching a height of
nearly four meters (13.2 ft.). Birds perch in the
branches, -which bear leaves, fruit, and buds. Although
reassembled from many pieces as far as possible, it
remains incomplete. A dragon entwines itself around
the trunk, descending from the heavens. There are many
holes for suspension of dangling objects, and some frag-
ments from other trees still retain such jade or bronze
disks. There is also provision at the top of the trunk for
the placement of a further embellishment that might
well have been one of the bronze bird images recovered
from the same pit. This -would almost certainly have
been a representation of a crow, which in Chinese leg-
ends lives in the Sun. Such a crow linked -with the Sun
is seen much later in the tomb banner from MAWANGDUL
Two other incomplete trees were also found. These must
have held considerable ritual importance. The traces of
gold are still found on some of the fruit. One tree had
trunks that terminate in a hybrid human-bird figure
wearing a crown.

Human Heads and Masks

A similar figure is found on part of a bronze altar half a
meter high, made up of a dragon, human figures -wearing
crowns, masks, and birds. The human heads cast in
bronze are also unique to this period in China. They are
about 40 to 50 centimeters (16 to 20 in.) high, and many
would have worn a headdress or crown. Others wear a
flat cap cast first and then later cast on to the face. One of
these heads contained jades, co-wry shells, bronze dag-
gers, and a gold ornament in the form of a tiger. Four of
the bronze heads in the second pit wore gold masks
secured to the face by a resin. Only the eyes and holes for
the attachment of ear ornaments are not covered. Other
gold masks -were found in Pit 2, but they have not been
matched with individual heads. A large human head, half
a meter high, wore an elaborate headdress in the form of
two yazhang blades; another wore a turban, and his ears
were pierced three times, probably to retain ornaments.

The human heads are thought to have worn masks.
In other bronzes, the masks themselves are complete
and separate. Some are massive. One example is 60 cen-
timeters (2 ft.) wide and weighs 13.5 kilograms (29.7
lbs.). This bronze was apparently cast in one pour, a tes-
tament to the skill of the specialists who -worked at
Sanxingdui. Holes left at strategic places suggest that it
was once attached to a face sculpted in another
medium, such as -wood. In a second type of mask, which
is bigger than the previous group, the masks combine
human and animal faces and have grotesquely promi-
nent eyes on protruding stalks. One of these is almost
1.4 meters wide, with pointed ears, tight lips -with a
slightly protruding tongue, and jutting chin. There is a
rectangular hole on the forehead that -was cut out after
the mask had been cast. This might well have held in
place a tall bronze projection with curved ends and an
ornamental forepiece like that seen on a second giant
animal mask. This projection is known as a kuilong, or
dragon image -without horns. The mask also has broad
lips and pointed ears, but the eyeballs are rounded and
projected in front of the face in tall, slanted eyes. Again,
it has square holes under the ears probably to attach the
mask to a body. Purely animal masks were also cast.
Their schematized but forbidding features are matched
on the designs cast into the ritual vessels of the period,
but these masks are large, measuring up to 30 centime-
ters -wide. Some of the ritual bronze vessels from Sanx-
ingdui show marked similarities to those from the late
Shang capital at ANYANG. A large lei vessel, for example,
a little more than a half-meter in height, matches the
shape and decoration of analogous vessels at Anyang.
On the other hand, details of the casting techniques
employed at Sanxingdui reveal local preferences. In
casting a lei the Shu casters used four-piece molds,
against the three preferred at Anyang.

The massive bronzes -were probably decorations for
one or more large ritual structures. Their placement may

Sarasvati River 297

be reconstructed on the basis of a bronze model of an
altar, a little more than a half-meter in height, that has
been reconstructed from fragmentary remains from Pit 2.
It has a series of tiers separated by platforms, supported
by a four-legged animal. The first tier incorporates bronze
figures closely resembling the large face masks, each
holding in outstretched hands a curved offering of some
sort. These match the small model of a kneeling man
holding a yazhang blade in the same posture. The upper-
most tier of the altar includes rows of kneeling figures in
half-relief, -with their arms again in a position of holding
a ceremonial offering of some sort.

Animal Figures

Animal castings were abundant at Sanxingdui. Apart from
the birds, there is a unique complete snake resembling a
python, about 1.1 meters long. The body is richly orna-
mented with geometric designs. Two lugs beside the head
were probably intended to suspend or hold it against
another object.

JADES FROM PITS

Jade was one of the most prestigious materials found in
Shang period burials and had a long period of use preced-
ing the first states. At Sanxingdui, many jades of the
highest quality were recovered. The ge is a dagger with a
broad blade and a hilt. Eighteen such daggers in jade
were found in Pit 1, and 21 were taken from Pit 2. A
yazhang is a long-handled blade or knife, characteristic of
the period beginning with the Xia dynasty (2100-1766
B.C.E.) and ending with the early WESTERN ZHOU DYNASTY
(1045-771 B.C.E.). They are widely distributed in China,
including Hong Kong, and even extend into northern
Vietnam. However, only about 200 specimens are known.
The importance of the two pits at Sanxingdui can, there-
fore, be appreciated when it is considered that 57
yazhang were recovered. Some show local design prefer-
ences. There is, for example, a blade with a forked end
and hooks close to the handle. It is very long and weighs
almost a kilogram. Even this specimen, however, pales
before a broken blade from Pit 1, which would have been
more than a meter and a half long. The recovery of a
small bronze figure of a kneeling man holding just such a
forked blade in front of him emphasizes their probably
ritual function.

Other jades include axes, rings, and the cong, a ritual
object of considerable longevity, and all these forms are
widespread. Two types of jades, however, are unparal-
leled: There are a jade pendant, and a long chisel, of
which 43 were found in a bronze vessel. Another unique
object recovered from the first pit is the gold sheath for a
staff of some sort, decorated with fish and human faces
wearing earrings and a crown.

RESULTS OF EXCAVATIONS

The site of Sanxingdui has reoriented the appreciation of
early civilization in China. Hitherto, virtually all atten-

tion had been paid to the central plains and the Shang
state, with its huge royal graves, oracle bones, palaces,
and rich culture of ritual bronzes, but there was another
early state in Sichuan, the state of Shu. While adhering to
the same ritual traditions and following the same sym-
bolic designs, such as the TAOTIE (animal's head) mask so
familiar at Anyang, the rulers of Sanxingdui encouraged a
remarkable local school of bronze casting that delighted
in the gigantic. There are few, if any, parallels in the
ancient world for the size of the freestanding statue of a
man, the trees, or the huge masks with animal features
and eyes on stalks. The trees reveal remarkable and inno-
vative skill, and even the jades show a taste for the spec-
tacular and novel. One bronze of a woman holding above
her head the model of a bronze zu.n container indicates
how ritual offerings were probably made. Further excava-
tions at this great city and its environs can only produce
more remarkable discoveries.

Sanxingdui was almost certainly the seat of a power-
ful Shu kingdom, for ceramics similar to those recovered
there have also been found over large parts of Sichuan
province, including Yaan to the south and Yangzishan in
Chengdu city. The latter site has revealed a large earthen
platform, probably designed to perform rituals. It stood at
least 10 meters (33 ft.) high, and its base was a little more
than 100 meters square (120 sq. yds.). A further impor-
tant site has been examined at Chengdu. It was a long
wooden structure; one significant find there was a clay
spindle incised with a written character.

Sapallitepa Sapallitepa is a prehistoric settlement
located on the delta of the Ulanbulaksai River, a tributary
of the Amu Dar'ya, in northern BACTRIA (now
Afghanistan). It was excavated in the early 1970s, and
although estimating its area has proved difficult, it is
thought to have covered at least four hectares (10 acres).
It was occupied during the Bronze Age between 2200 and
2000 B.C.E. and aids an understanding of growing social
complexity in this strategic region. A large palace com-
plex covers about a hectare of the site and includes sepa-
rate occupation areas, revealing the presence of specialists
in the manufacture of bone, horn, and bronze artifacts.
Late in the occupation period, the palace area was used as
a cemetery, and 138 inhumation graves have been uncov-
ered. Female graves in this cemetery not only contained
more wealth measured in terms of ceramic and bronze
artifacts, but they also were the only burials to contain
certain high-prestige items, such as SEALS. The male
graves are outnumbered by a ratio of 2:3 by the female
and contained far fewer bronzes.

Sarasvati River The Sarasvati River was formerly a
sacred river originating in the Himalayas and entering the
sea at the Rann of Katchchh. It is now extinct, although
its course, roughly parallel to and east of the Indus River,

298 Sarnath

can still be traced. It was mentioned as a living river in
the RIG-VEDA. Archaeological surveys along its course
have yielded many sites, including those occupied during
the period of the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (c. 2500-
c. 1770 B.C.E.). Of these, KALIBANGAN is probably the best
known. In about 1750 B.C.E. the water that had fed the
Sarasvati appears to have been diverted east into the
Ganges (Ganga) system, leading to a major abandonment
of settlements along its course.

Sarnath Sarnath, near Varanasi (Benares), in India, is
the location of the Buddha's first sermon and thus holds a
special place in the history of this religion. Now ruined,
the earliest monasteries at Sarnath are thought to have
been constructed during the Buddha's own lifetime but
attracted much further building under the Mauryan king
ASOKA. The Great Stupa, thought to date to the fifth cen-
tury C.E., survives despite the removal of the outer dome.
The substructure contains -wall niches and relief carvings.
Between 1834 and 1836, SIR ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM
opened the monument, a monumental task that required
scaffolding and the employment of quarrymen from the
Chunar sandstone quarries. The stupa had large stone
blocks secured in place by iron cramps, and removing
them over a depth of 33 meters from the top revealed a
layer of bricks. The basal soil was reached after continu-
ing down for a further 8.5 meters, and then galleries were
run out at the level of the bricks, but no foundation
deposit was encountered. Apart from stupas and monas-
teries, Asoka had the most famous and elegant of his
columns erected there; one has as its capital four lions
facing the cardinal points of the compass. Many religious
buildings were constructed over the centuries, including
the Dhamekha stupa, and the Dharmacakrajinavihara has
the distinction of being among the latest monasteries
built there before the slaughter of the monks at the hands
of Muhammed Ghori in 1194 C.E. Sarnath was also a
major center of Buddhist art, based on the locally avail-
able Chunar sandstone. This art style had its origins in
the fifth century C.E., and its justifiably most famous
work represents a seated Buddha.
See also MAURYA EMPIRE.

Sassanian empire The Sassanian empire of Persia was
founded by Ardashir I in about 216 C.E., when he
defeated the last Parthian king, Artabanus V. One of
Ardashir's ancestors, Sasan, gave his name to this ne-w
dynasty. Ardashir's early eastern conquests included the
strategic MERV (no-w Mary) oasis in Margiana. His son,
Shapur, continued the expansion of the Sassanian empire,
most notably by defeating and capturing the Roman
emperor Valerian at the Battle of Edessa in 260 C.E. He
also consolidated and expanded the eastern provinces,
claiming success over the western KUSHANS by taking

Purusapura, modern Peshawar in Pakistan, as well as
BACTRIA, and extracting tribute. He had fortresses con-
structed on the eastern frontiers and greatly expanded
Mary (Merv). This vital oasis center was formerly under
semi-independent rulers, who were replaced by Sassanian
appointees. Already by the third century C.E., Mary
boasted a Christian monastery as well as Buddhist foun-
dations. It was also a trading and manufacturing center
for armaments, and a quarter of the city -was given over to
the production of ceramics. The stability provided under
Sassanian rule stimulated trade across the SILK ROAD at
least until the demise of the empire in the mid-seventh
century C.E.

The archaeological evidence of trade is abundant.
Chinese silks have been recovered from Palmyra, and
Sassanian glass reached China and even farther east in
Korea and Japan. The Sassanians also showed consider-
able interest in maritime trade that incorporated India,
Sri Lanka, and beyond. The principal source of evidence
for this trade network is the Topographia Christiana
(Christian Topography) of Cosmas Indicopleustes of
Alexandria in Egypt, -which dates to about 550 C.E. This
text emphasizes Sri Lanka as a key player in Sassanian
eastern trade. Cosmas describes how Chinese and South-
east Asian goods reached Sri Lanka, including silk,
CLOVES, and sandalwood, and -were then taken west by
Sassanian merchants. Eurther items of Indian origin,
obtained by the same means, were elephants, copper,
and pepper. Such was the Western demand for silk via
this route that the Byzantine historian Procopius (born
bet-ween 490 and 507 C.E.) indicated that it -was impossi-
ble to buy in Indian ports because the market was domi-
nated by Persians. It is even possible that the Sassanians
traveled beyond Sri Lanka. The Nestorian Annals note
that one of the bishops attending a synod in 410 C.E. -was
entitled. Metropolitan of the Islands, Seas and Interior, of
Dabang, Chin, and Macin. Dabang was probably Java;
the other two locations -were in China. By the end of the
Sassanian empire between 637 and 651 C.E., dominance
of the Eastern maritime trade -was complete.

Satanikota Satanikota is a walled SATAVAHANA city
site, located on the Tungabhadra River in central India.
It is particularly notable for the -work put into its sur-
rounding moat, which was chiseled from rock to a
depth of up to three meters. The principal phase of
occupation falls between 50 B.C.E. and 250 C.E., -when
the walls and moat were constructed; the former was
equipped with gateways and probably a drawbridge.
There -were once many BRICK structures in the defended
area, but brick robbing has destroyed most of the evi-
dence. Ho-wever, an impressive assemblage of material
cultural remains were found, in particular a wide range
of beads in glass and semiprecious stones, including
carenelian, opal, jasper, and agate.

Sdok Kak Thorn 299

Satavahana The Satavahana dynasty dominated the
Deccan in India from the late first century B.C.E. to the
third century C.E. and resisted invading elements from
the northwest. The people are known as the Andhras,
Dravidians -who spoke Telugu. Their state had two great
rivers, the Krishna and the Godavari, and commanded a
long tract of coast looking east across the Bay of Bengal.
By this location, the kingdom was able to dominate the
growing trade between the East and the Roman Empire,
and the PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTHRAEAN SEA mentions two
sites that participated, Pratisthana and Tagara. Finds of
COINAGE and INSCRIPTIONS also indicate the importance
under the Satavahanas of SANNATHI, -which grew to cover
an area of 40 hectares (100 acres) in the defensive walls.
Other important urban centers were Kondapur, Banavasi,
and Madhavpur. The success of the Satavahanas has been
ascribed to their dominance of a growing trade with the
West, in which command of these passes linking the
■western coast of India with the cities of the interior -was a
paramount consideration.

NANAGHAT, commands a vital pass linking the capital
Paithan -with the sea, and there the Satavahana consorts
of King Satakarni set up images of themselves and
inscriptions describing their sacrificial donations. These
date 60-70 B.C.E. , but according to reports from Agath-
archides of Alexandria, the Indian trade had been domi-
nated by Arabs already half a century earlier.

HISTORY OF THE SATAVAHANAS

The date of the first Satavahana king, Simuka Satavahana,
is not known -with certainty. Some claim that he ruled
during the third century B.C.E., just after the Greek envoy
MEGASTHENES described the Andhras as a powerful peo-
ple. However, evidence from coins suggests a slightly
later end to his reign but certainly by 120 B.C.E. He -was
followed by two other powerful leaders, Kanha and
Satakarni, the latter ruling until about 60 B.C.E. At its
zenith, under a succession of charismatic leaders, the
Satavahana empire covered much of central and southern
India. An image of Simuka was formerly in the Nanaghat
cave, along with representations of later Satavahana
rulers. This bright beginning was followed by fragmenta-
tion and defeat at the hands of the Kshaharata satraps
under Nahapana, who ruled the area for almost 50 years.
Gautamiputra Satakarni (c. 103-127 C.E.) is usually
regarded as the greatest Satavahana king, and his military
prowess resulted in the incorporation of territory from
Rajasthan to Andhra and from Gujarat east to Kalinga. He
■was described as the restorer of Satavahana glory, the
king who defeated Nahapana. He was followed by
Pulumavi in 110 C.E. and then by Vasishtiputra Siri
Satakarni in 138 C.E. The latter consolidated his position
through a strategic marriage with the daughter of the
powerful WESTERN SATRAP leader Rudradaman. When his
reign ended in 145 C.E., his successor, Shivaskanda, -was
t-wice defeated in battles by Rudradaman, and the main

line of kings ended in 181 C.E. with the death of Yajnasri
Satakarni.

The later history of the dynasty is best traced
through the coin issues. The coins of Yajnasri Satakarni
bear images of ships, which might represent naval and
trading success. The last king, Pulumavi IV, ruled until
about 225 C.E., and during this period many major Bud-
dhist monuments were constructed at Nagajunakonda
and Amaravati. After his reign, the power of the empire
declined, as it fragmented into smaller regional entities,
and the Satavahanas pass from vie-w by the early fourth
century.

Satingpra Satingpra is a city site on the east coast of
isthmian Thailand, one of the early sites that grew rich
on the basis of the southern maritime SILK ROAD. It is a
moated site covering an area of 1,600 by 900 meters
(5,280 by 2,970 ft.), and excavations by Janice Stargardt
have revealed that settlement began between about 300
B.C.E. and 200 C.E. From the sixth century, the site
assumed an urban form, linked -with the development of
hydraulic engineering works that encompassed canals
and storage tanks. These -were probably employed to
increase rice production on the alluvial soils north of the
center. A sixth-century temple was dedicated to Vishnu,
and the ceramics are clearly very similar to those from OC
EO, the trading port of the state of EUNAN.

scapulomancy Scapulomancy is the process of divina-
tion by applying heat to scapulae or shoulder blades to
produce cracks used to predict future events. The earliest
record of this procedure is from the Shandong LONGSHAN
CULTURE site of Chengziyai (2500-1900 B.C.E.), in China,
■where 16 specimens have been recovered. Kings of the
SHANG STATE and WESTERN ZHOU DYNASTY in China from
about 1200 B.C.E. retained court diviners. Cattle scapulae
had holes excised, and heat was applied. The king then
interpreted the meaning of the resultant cracks, and his
prophecies were inscribed on the bone in archaic Chinese
characters. These covered such subjects as -war, the har-
vest, the -weather, -when to make sacrifices to the ances-
tors, and whether royal consorts would enjoy a safe
childbirth. The records were then stored in state archives.
Many have been recovered through archaeological exca-
vations and provide the basis for understanding later
Shang dynastic history.

See also LI JI; LIU TAIYUN; ORACLE BONES; PLASTRO-
MANCY; SONG YIRANG.

Sdok Kak Thom Sdok Kak Thom is a small temple
located just inside Thailand. Its original name -was Bhad-
raniketana. It has an outer laterite wall that encloses a
moat and an inner set of -walls. Three temple sanctuaries
lie -within. The site is particularly well kno-wn because of
a lengthy INSCRIPTION that was set in place by Sadasiva, a

300 seals

member of an aristocratic priestly family, who traced his
ancestors back to the time of JAYAVARMAN II (c. 770-834
C.E.) of ANGKOR in Cambodia. Although its prime pur-
pose was to record the erection of a LINGAM and gifts
from the king, it also describes the history of the Shiv-
akaivalya family. Interwoven with this dynastic record are
vital clues to the establishment of the state of Angkor by
Jayavarman II. It describes, for example, how Jayavarman
returned from Java to rule in the holy city of INDRAPURA.
The king then moved with his followers to the vicinity of
modern Angkor. The inscription records the establish-
ment by Jayavarman more than 250 years before the text
was inscribed of a cult honoring the KAMRATENG JAGAT TA
RAJA. This title, which translates into SANSKRIT as
DEVARAJA, means "the god who is king." Shivakaivalya
and his descendants were given the exclusive right to
undertake the rituals associated with this god.

seals

INDIA

Seals are one of the most significant and productive arti-
facts recovered from excavations in the sites from the
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (c. 2500-1700 B.C.E.) to the

GUPTA EMPIRE (c. 320-c. 500 C.E.). In 1872, sir Alexander
CUNNINGHAM discovered a seal at HARAPPA decorated with
the image of a unicorn and a text in a still undeciphered
script. This indicated the possibility of a civilization in the
Indus Valley earlier than any then known on the subconti-
nent. Subsequently, hundreds of seals have been recov-
ered, and the images have provided much information on
the life and thoughts of the people of the Indus civiliza-
tion. An unfinished specimen from MOHENJO DARO shows
the outline of a unicorn on the surface of a piece of
STEATITE nearly three centimeters square (0.48 sq. in.) as

Steatite seals are a vital source of information on the Indus civilization. They incorporate texts in the undeciphered Indus script,
ritual scenes, and the images of animals. (Borromeo/Art Resource, NY)

seals 301

■well as faint outlines of a text. This shows beyond doubt
that manufactories -were established in major sites.

Most seals were made of steatite, which was first
incised with the appropriate text and motif that stand out
from the background, then polished and fired to harden
the surface. Rarely were seals made of silver and copper.
They -were used to make an impression on a clay sealing
affixed, it is assumed, to merchandise destined for trade.
Where the actual clay seal impressions are found, they
have on occasion the impressions on fabric or string on
the reverse side. Few seals exceed five by five centimeters
(2 by 2 in.) in size, and most were equipped -with a perfo-
rated boss or a hole through them for suspension by the
owner. Broken seals are not uncommon and have been
recovered from houses and the streets of the major sites.

Motifs

The motifs employed include in the main a male animal,
often associated -with a vessel raised on legs under the
head, which might be an altar or a feeding stand. Bulls are
commonly depicted; a fine example from Mohenho Daro
■was found without a feeding stand, but with a clear text of
six pictographic characters. Unicorns are regularly encoun-
tered. Other animals include antelopes, elephants, tigers,
■water buffaloes, gharials, crocodiles, and rhinoceroses. A
second specimen from Mohenjo Daro has a bull on one
side and a swastika motif on the other and is pierced
through the center. Script alone is seen on a third exam-
ple from this site. The depiction of boats emphasizes the
importance of river and maritime trade. One such speci-
men shows a boat with a cabin and rudder, with both
stern and pro^w raised up from the level of the deck. Per-
haps the most revealing, however, are those seals that
depict a deity. Although a seal with a god figure from
Mohenjo Daro is only 2.7 centimeters (1 in.) in height, it
sho^ws a remarkably detailed image of a male god seated
on a throne with legs in a yogic position. His arms are
covered in bangles, and he wears an elaborate horned
headdress with three branches of a pipal tree. The throne,
presumably of wood, has feet carved in the form of
bovine hoofs. An even more complex scene of a deity
incorporates a god standing within a sacred fig or pipal
tree, again ■with a horned headdress and many bangles on
each arm. A figure kneels before the god, associated with
a ram. Below, seven people are seen in a row. All this
imagery, ■with script, is set out in a seal barely exceeding
four by four centimeters (1.6 by 1.6 in.).

The possible ritual importance of animals, perhaps in
sacrifice to the deities as in the case of the ram, is seen in
an extraordinary seal from Mohenjo Daro with an animal
■with a human face, elephant's trunk, bull's hooves, but-
tocks of a tiger, and a cobra as a tail. Gods are also seen
battling ■with animals: A terra-cotta tablet that might have
served as a seal from Harappa has a goddess on top of an
elephant, holding off t^wo tigers on one side, and the
killing of a water buffalo in front of the horned, seated

god on the other. Many seals show a unicorn in front of a
bowl-shaped receptacle raised on a pedestal, which itself
supports a mushroom-shaped object with three disks
above it. The purpose of this enigmatic but commonly
depicted artifact remains controversial; none has sur-
vived, but an ivory miniature has been recovered from
Harappa. It is also seen in a ritual procession scene. It has
been suggested that it was a filter to make the intoxicat-
ing ritual drink soma, which is described in Vedic texts.
There are also some seals or sealings from Mohenjo Daro
that depict a remarkable scene of acrobats vaulting over
the horns of a bull. Others sho^w a bull being sacrificed by
a man ■with a foot on the bull's horns and reaching over to
spear the animal in the neck, as a modern matador
■would. This scene and details of associated figures such
as a tree and a dove are matched in similar scenes from
Minoan Crete.

These seals probably hold the key to any future deci-
pherment of the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION SCRIPT. They
■were probably in personal, corporate, or temple owner-
ship, and the texts might ■well be royal titles, personal
names, or other names or attributes of a temple. The
symbol for a structure, which might be a temple, is often
associated with a seal depicting the horned god. Their
distribution is widespread, and the location of specific
varieties again holds a key to reconstructing trade rela-
tionships. This is seen clearly in the remains of sealings
from a burned warehouse at the site of LOTHAL, which
bore images of a unicorn, an elephant, and a swastika,
although the seal in question has not been found. The
presence of Indus seals in Mesopotamia provides com-
pelling evidence for long-distance trade.

Later Seals
Seals continued to be used in the Maurya and Gupta
empires. They ■were made of ivory, bone, various varieties
of stone, and terra-cotta and normally contain the name
of the o^wner in the BRAHMI script. The excavations of
BHITA yielded a large sample of both seals and sealings
dating from the MAURYA EMPIRE to the Gupta empire.
Some ivory seals, ■with the names of individuals or in one
instance a corporation or guild, were found in houses,
and the excavator, SIR JOHN MARSHALL, gave their names
to the residences they may once have occupied. Unlike
the Indus seals, those of Bhita can be translated and thus
provide much more information. There are seals issued
by kings. Those of the Gupta empire also include the
titles of officials, naming military leaders, police, chiefs of
police, and administrators assigned to the office of a
crown prince. Individuals, probably merchants, had their
own seals, and the motifs employed, such as bulls, pea-
cocks, or LINGAMS, provide insight into their religious
preferences.

SOUTHEAST ASIA

Seals inscribed in the Brahmi script have been recovered
from the site of OC EO on the Mekong Delta and provide

302 seismograph

compelling evidence for the presence of Indian traders in
Southeast Asia between 200 and 500 C.E.

CHINA

Although two bronze seals are thought to date to the
Shang dynasty, seals in China only became widely used
during the period of EASTERN ZHOU DYNASTY (770-221
B.C.E.)- They were made of a variety of materials, includ-
ing jade, bronze, silver, opal, antler, and bone. The seals
employed in the various Warring States were of distinc-
tive regional shapes and forms of script. A particularly
well-known example probably from Shandong province
was used to brand horses. Others were used by local offi-
cials or army officers. During the HAN DYNASTY (206
B.C.E. -220 C.E.), there were seals of gold.

Early Seals

The seals were usually square with a pierced knob. Until
the QIN unification of China, they were known as xi, but
thereafter, this term was used only for official govern-
ment seals, and others were known as yin. Throughout
the WARRING STATES PERIOD (475-221 B.C.E.), seals were
given to officials to reflect their status. They were nor-
mally worn at the waist and indicated the rank of the
owner. They could also easily be removed. The Warring
States had their own distinctive form of seals, which usu-
ally bore the name of the office held by the owner and the
place where he undertook his duties. One seal of the state
of YAN, for example, mentions an official in charge of a
market at Danyou. Some of the state of QI seals are dis-
tinctive for their large size. A Zhou seal was evidently
used for branding horses. Seals were also used to stamp
manufacturers' or owners' marks on fabric: Burial 44 at
Zuojiatang, a tomb of the CHU state, bore the imprint of a
red seal mark. A looted grave found at Majiaxiang in
Sichuan province, dating to the Warring States period,
yielded a seal that probably belonged to the dead individ-
ual interred there. It has on the reverse animal face
(taotie) mask designs, while the surface was inscribed
with emblems of the undeciphered Ba-Shu script.

Later Seals
With the expansion of the empire under the Han dynasty,
emperors gave seals to client rulers to confirm them in
office. These hold a particular attraction, because the
form of the knob seems to reflect local traditions or inter-
ests. Thus a gold seal described in the Records of the
Grand Historian (sHIJi) as being conferred on the king of
Dian in 109 B.C.E. had a knob in the form of a snake. The
snake was a symbol of prosperity among this tribe in
Yunnan province far to the south, and the seal text reads,
"Seal of the King of Dian." It was found in a royal grave
at the necropolis of SHIZHAISHAN during the excavations
there. Nine seals were found in the tomb of the second
king of Yue (r. 137—122 B.C.E.), all placed close to his
body, which had been interred in a jade suit. The largest

is inscribed, "Administrative seal of the Emperor Wen,"
and the handle is in the form of a coiled dragon. This seal
is the largest of its type found, measuring 3.1 centimeters
(1.2 in.) square. A seal in bronze from Yushigeti in
remote western Xinjiang had a knob in form of a sheep.
The local tribes people were sheep pastoralists, and their
ruler was given the official title gui yi to confirm his offi-
cial status. In 1979 a bronze seal was found at Sunjiazhai
in Qinhai province. It conferred the right to rule there on
the chief of the Xiongnu, and the knob in this case was in
the form of a camel. The History of the Later Han Dynasty
(hou HANSHu), compiled in 445 C.E., recorded the gift of a
gold seal and ribbon to a delegation representing the
ruler of Na, a small state in Japan, by the Han emperor
GUANG WUDI in 57 C.E. In 1784, a golden seal was found
at Fukuoka in Kyushu, inscribed, "The king of Na of Wa
of Han." It measures 2.35 centimeters (0.94 in.) across,
and its knob was in the form of a snake. This is quite
probably the same seal recorded in the history.

The Han people themselves could own their own
seals for closing documents or letters, and these often
had an auspicious saying or the figure of a human, ani-
mal, or bird. A rare example of the use of sealings was
found in the tombs of the marquis of Dai, his wife, and
son, from MAWANGDUI. Dated to 168 B.C.E. in the case of
the marquis and a few years later for his wife, these
graves were found in a remarkably well-preserved condi-
tion. Tomb 1, for example, was covered by layers of char-
coal and clay to exclude air and damp. Within lay
bamboo cases containing a wide range of mortuary offer-
ings, and these were sealed with the words "Steward of
the house of the Marquis of Dai."

See also EUNAN; RIG-VEDA; SILK BURIAL OEEERINGS.

seismograph The world's earliest known seismograph
was manufactured by Zhang Heng during the reign of the
Chinese emperor SHUNDI in 132 C.E. It is a large cylindri-
cal bronze vessel with a diameter of almost two meters
(6.6 ft.). The center of the vessel contains a long, vertical
bronze rod that could move laterally as a pendulum when
the vessel was rocked or moved, as in an earthquake. The
edges of the vessel had eight levers that would be
depressed downward when touched by the central rod.
On being touched and moved, the corresponding eight
cast dragons on the exterior of the vessel would rotate
with the mouth downward, thereby releasing a bronze
ball held in the mouth. The bronze ball would then fall
into the waiting mouth of a toad, positioned on the base
of the seismograph under each dragon. It is said that this
instrument was so delicate that it could record a tremor
imperceptible to human senses and point to its direction.

Selagiri Hill Selagiri Hill is located near Kyauktaw, in
the upper reaches of the Kaladan River in ARAKAN
(Rakhine) province, western Myanmar (Burma). It is a

Shangjun Shu 303

location of the greatest sanctity, because according to leg-
end the Buddha and some followers flew here from India.
This led to the casting of the MAHAMUNI (Great Sage)
image of the Buddha, said to be the only such representa-
tion cast in his likeness during his lifetime. After being
revered at the Mahamuni shine at DHANYAWADI for more
than a millennium, the image was moved to Mandalay in
northern Myanmar in the late 18th century. There it con-
tinues to attract the deepest possible veneration and is so
covered in gold that its original form cannot be dis-
cerned. Investigations on Selagiri Hill have identified a
brick stupa, associated with a series of magnificent sand-
stone reliefs depicting events in the life of the Buddha.
While clearly showing Indian inspiration, the local
school of sculptors created some innovations. One shows
the Buddha's enlightenment as he sits on a throne under a
stylized bodhi tree, surrounded by a scalloped backdrop
representing radiant light. The style of this and the other
reliefs indicates an origin in the period when Vesali was
the capital of this region in the sixth and seventh cen-
turies C.E. A second sculpture, found complete and
undamaged, sho-ws the Buddha delivering his first ser-
mon in the Varanasi (Benares) Deer Park. Again he sits
on a throne, his feet resting on a stool. Two ascetics kneel
beside him, and a deer lies in the foreground. A third
example shows the Parinirvana, the death of the Buddha.
He is seen lying under three trees, while mourners kneel
beside him. A fine example of a BODHISATTVA -was also
found in this group, its presence indicating that
MAHAYANA BUDDHISM had a Strong hold in this region.

Seleucus I Nicator (356-281 b.c.e.) Seleucus 1 Nicator
was a prominent general of Alexander the Great.
He was born in Macedonia and died in Thrace. He took
part in Alexander's eastern campaigns, and after the death
of ALEXANDER THE GREAT (356-323 B.C.E.) and the division
of his empire, Seleucus took control of Babylon and Persia.
In 305 B.C.E. he took the title of basileus, or king, and set in
train a campaign to recover the ground lost in northwestern
India. This campaign, ho-wever, failed in the face of opposi-
tion from CANDRAGUFTA MAURYA (r c. 325-297 B.C.E.). He is
renowned for having founded the Seleucid empire.

Shangcunling Shangcunling is a cemetery located in
Henan province, China. It -was in use for about 120 years
until the defeat of the small state of Guo by the JIN in 655
B.C.E. Two hundred forty-three burials have been exca-
vated there, and they have provided unusually clear evi-
dence for the status differences -within a senior line of the
Guo lineage. Texts of the later WARRING STATES PERIOD
(475—221 B.C.E.) stated that status distinctions were
reflected in mortuary rituals by the presence or absence
of tomb chambers and multiple wooden coffins. This
cemetery also provides compelling evidence that even
■within related members of the same lineage, distinctions

■were made in the number of ding tripod bronze vessels,
the presence of bell sets, and the provision of chariots
and horses. The excavations at Shangcunling illustrate
the importance of large-scale excavations in cemeteries
that concentrate on the total assemblage of burials, be
they rich or poor. In this way, vital social information
confirming what is kno^wn from textual records can be
obtained through archaeological research.

Information is available on the cemetery's spatial lay-
out. Small graves tended to cluster around two large and
rich tombs, ■which probably contained the remains of the
lineage heads of the time. The largest burial. Tomb 2009,
included multiple sets of bronze ding tripods, bells, and
ritual bronzes as well as a large assemblage of jade orna-
ments. Some jades ■were placed over the head and body.
Large chariot and horse pits were associated with this
burial, ■which held two coffins, one placed ■within the
other. An inscription reveals that the dead person had
been the head of a younger branch of the lineage. The
inscription on the halberd from Tomb 2001, which also
had sets of ding tripods, ritual vessels, and jades, states
that the dead person was a senior member of a junior
Guo lineage. Tomb 1052 is also a large and opulent inter-
ment. The text on the halberd states that it belonged to
Yuan, the heir apparent to Guo. It has two ■wooden cham-
bers and a coffin. Bells and bronze vessels were found in
the northeastern corner of the tomb, while a chariot and
its fitting lay in the northeast. Weapons had been placed
east and ■west of the coffin. The prince had worn jade ear-
rings, and other jade ornaments lay on his chest. Ten
chariots and twenty horses lay in the associated pits.
High-status burials also contained MINGQI, miniature
bronze wine vessels of a form that had not been used
since the ritual reforms of the preceding WESTERN ZHOU
DYNASTY (1045-771 B.C.E.). Rare cast-iron artifacts,
including a dagger ■with jade handle and TURQUOISE inlay
on the blade, ■were found in silk-lined leather sheaths.

One grade of burials was associated with three ding
tripods. Those without ■weapons are particularly interest-
ing, because they contained the remains of high-status
princesses from the state of Su, a polity that had marriage
relations with Guo. Lower-ranked members ■were buried
■with one or t^wo ding, but the majority of the tombs had
only ceramic mingqi vessels and jades, and some had no
grave goods at all.

See also CONFUCIUS.

Further reading: Nienhauser, W. H., ed. The Grand
Scribe's Records. Vol. 1, The Basic Annals of Pre-Han China,
by Ssu-ma Ch'ien. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indi-
ana University Press, 1994.

Shijia Shijia is a city site on the right bank of the Huang
(Yello-w) River in Shandong province, central China. It was
first occupied during the period of the late LONGSHAN CUL-
TURE (2500-1800 B.C.E.), when a wall and moat enclosed
an area of a little less than five hectares (12.5 acres). Dur-
ing the ensuing XIA DYNASTY (2100-1766 B.C.E.), the
inhabitants used ORACLE BONES; the middle Shang period
there witnessed early INSCRIPTIONS on cast bronzes.

Shijiahe Shijiahe is a very large urban site located on
the left bank of the Han River above its confluence with

the Chang (Yangtze). It belongs to the central Chinese
Qujialing (3300-2500 B.C.E.) and Shijiahe cultures
(2500-2000 B.C.E.). This makes the site approximately
the contemporary of similar early urban sites of the
LONGSHAN CULTURE in the central plains and Shandong.
The stamped-earth defensive walls form a square, in
which lie residences, burials, and a jade workshop. A
piece of bronze has also been found. For decades, the
central plains to the north have been given precedence in
terms of state formation in China. Shijiahe is one of sev-
eral sites in the middle Chang Valley that reveal that simi-
lar trends to complexity also occurred in central China.

Shilla The state of Shilla was one of the THREE KING-
DOMS of Korea and -was located in the southeastern part
of the peninsula. It overcame its rivals KAYA, KOGURYO,
and PAEKCHE during the sixth and seventh centuries, to
rule Korea unchallenged. The unification of Korea was
associated with deep-seated changes in government, cen-
tered on the growing authority of the king. The high aris-
tocracy were given villages as re-wards for meritorious
service, and they were able to accumulate very great
wealth as a result. The contents of the royal graves of
Shilla reveal a rich and opulent society in -which gold
ornaments played a prominent part. The unification of
Korea under Shilla control in 668 C.E. is the period
known as Great Shilla. This unified state endured until
918, when the state of Koryo was founded. Great Shilla
had its heyday in the eighth century and was in regular
contact with the court of Tang China. Indeed, it is said
that the capital, known as the city of gold, -was modeled
on the Chinese city of CHANG'an and might have attained
a population of more than a million people. BUDDHISM
flourished under Great Shilla, and many temples with
statues of the Buddha were spread across the landscape.
The granite widely employed in sculpture encouraged the
survival of complete works of art.

Mythical and much later historic records ascribe the
origins of Shilla to a confederation of clans who in 37
B.C.E. resolved on an alliance against external dangers.
Gradually this group developed into a po-werful state that
had regular conflict along its borders -with Kogyuro to the
north and Paekche to the west. In the early days, the king
was entitled kosogan, or big man, but by the fourth cen-
tury, vital in the full development of Korean states, he
became the maripkan, or hereditary king. The rules of
succession incorporated queens, and three are known to
have succeeded. The early success of the Shilla state may
well have been based on the rich iron ore deposits of
Hwangsong-dong, which lie near the capital of Kyongju.
Iron was among the most likely of Shilla exports to Japan.

RANKS IN SHILLA

The ranks of the Shilla state were determined by ancestry;
hone was the term to denote status. Thus the supreme
rank, songgol, or holy hone, designated the highest eche-

Shilla 313

Ion -with the right to rule. The chingol, or true bone, were
ranked next before three further ranks and then the com-
moners. This last group was largely engaged in rice agri-
culture or worked in one of the 14 state departments
specializing in the production of fine silk, leather goods,
metal weapons and implements, woolen garments, tables,
and -wooden containers. Much of this output was used for
trade, particularly with China. Unlike Koguryo and
Paekche, Shilla preferred to retain its own shamanistic
religious practices against the spread of Buddhism, which
did not take hold until the early fifth century C.E.

TANG ALLIANCE

The Shilla kingdom had its capital in the Kyongju basin
at PANWOL-SONG. The surrounding hills were peppered
■with hilltop defensive fortresses. The capital had scribes,
for inscriptions in Chinese have been found, for example,
at Naengsiri. These reveal the existence of seven grades of
administrators and date to the early sixth century C.E. A
second, from Bongpyong, relates how King Pobhung took
a region into his kingdom in 524 C.E. King Chinhung (r.
540-576 C.E.) set boundary markers inscribed in Chi-
nese to demarcate his kingdom. These stretch from
Maunnyong in the north to Pukhan Sansong in the west.
Their need, however, was short lived. The two decades
before 660 C.E. were politically tumultuous. In 642 C.E.
King Uija (r. 641-660 C.E.) of Paekche attacked Shilla,
capturing 40 strategic forts and forcing Shilla to withdraw
from the frontier. King Muyong of Shilla immediately
sought an alliance with Koguryo to repel this incursion,
but the latter's demands for land were too high. Muyong
therefore sought an alliance with the Tang emperor.
When this was forthcoming, Paekche was subjected to a
pincer attack: A Tang fleet landed in the west, while
Shilla advanced and defeated the Paekche defensive
forces at Yonsan. Both allies then advanced on the
Paekche capital of Sabi, bringing this kingdom to its
knees in 660 C.E. The allies then turned their attention to
the kingdom of Koguryo. In 661 C.E. a Tang force was
rebuffed at the mouth of the Taedong River. However,
disaffection at the autocratic regime of King Yon Kaeso-
mun and rivalry over the succession when he died weak-
ened Koguryo resistance, and it succumbed to Shilla in
668 C.E. This brought the Three Kingdoms and the old
Shilla period to an end and heralded in its place the
United Shilla state, with authority throughout Korea
south of the line from the Taedong River to the Gulf of
Wonsan. To the north of this line, a Koguryo general
named Tao Cho-yong founded the new kingdom of
Parhae, with its capital far to the north at Sanggyong.

The Tang alliance was not, from the Chinese point of
view, undertaken without an ulterior motive, and the true
intentions soon became apparent. In the former kingdom
of Paekche, the Chinese turned five old provinces into
Chinese commanderies, or provinces, and appointed the
son of the former Paekche king, Puyo Yung, to administer

Ungjin commandery. For Shilla, the Chinese created the
grand commandery of Kyerim under King Munmu. Far-
ther north, they converted old Koguryo into nine com-
manderies and appointed a supreme governor for the
peninsula, under the title protector-general to pacify the
east, to reside in Pyongyang. The king of Shilla, however,
refused to accept this undisguised attempt by China to
absorb the Korean Peninsula. In a series of battles, mainly
in the valley of the Han River, he drove back the Tang. In
671 C.E. Shilla captured the vital fortress of Sabi and
thereby controlled all the former kingdom of Paekche.
The protector-general and his office were moved back to
Manchuria, and a unified Korea ejected the Chinese. This
was a crucial period in the history of Korea, for had Shilla
not triumphed, it is unlikely that the Chinese would ever
have withdrawn.

KINGS OF SHILLA

The unification of Korea is best understood in the con-
text of the rigid set of social ranks that prevailed. These
distinguished among the royal line, aristocracy, and
commoners. There were two royal lines, known as the
holy hone and the true bone clans, whose members were
accorded ranks 1-5. The aristocracy fell into ranks
6—27, and the three grades of commoners had no rank
at all. These distinctions are manifest in the reign of
King Hungkok, whose edict recorded in the SAMGUK
SAGI noted: "There are superior and inferior people, and
humble persons, in regard to social status." Until the
death of Queen Chindok (r. 647-654 C.E.), the
sovereign was drawn from the holy bone clan. A civil
war then saw the accession of King Muyol (r. 661-681
C.E.), who had been responsible as Kim Ch'unch'u for
inviting Tang China into Korean affairs. He was a mem-
ber of the true hone clan, and he and his successors pur-
sued a policy of strengthening kingly authority. King
Sinmun (681-692 C.E.) had rivals and dissidents liqui-
dated. He also faced the issue of ruling over conquered
kingdoms of Paekche and Koguryo. Achieving this
required that the former independent states were
divided into provinces (chu). There were three each in
Paekche, Kaya, and Koguryo. Each was further divided
into prefectures (kun), which in turn were made up of a
series of counties (hyon) and villages (ch'on). The
administrators of the provinces were appointed from the
capital at Kyongju, but the capital itself was now located
far to the southeast of the new kingdom, and a move
was considered but rejected. Rather, five new subcapi-
tals were strategically placed, and members of the aris-
tocracy were sent to live in them. They also housed the
defeated rulers and their families. However, local
administration below the province level incorporated
regional magnates, whose loyalty was ensured through
the sangsuri system, whereby they were periodically
required to live in the capital as hostages to the local
loyalty of their kinsmen.

314 Shilla

ADMINISTRATION AND ARMY

The New History of the Chinese Tang Dynasty recorded,
"Wealth flows constantly to the high officials, who pos-
sess as many as 3,000 slaves, and many weapons, cattle,
horses and pigs." Grain from ascribed villages was also
provided to members of the administration. It seems that
the specialists who made the armaments and other neces-
sities were attached to the aristocratic households in the
manner of slaves. The villages, whose production under-
wrote the survival of the state, were subject to triennial
census registers. A surviving document dating to 755 C.E.
shows that the population was counted, together with the
productive capacity of each village. The latter included
the numbers of stock of various kinds, even the number
of mulberry and nut trees, and the amount and quality of
the land. Some of the villages were occupied by free fami-
lies, but there were also many communities of conquered
people or criminals, who were sent there as slaves to
work the land for the state. However, the lives of the
peasantry were at least spiritually alleviated by the rapid
spread of a popular form of Buddhism, known as the
Pure Land faith. Under its principal advocate, the monk
Wonhyo, it asserted that everyone could expect rebirth
into paradise.

The army underwent a major restructuring under
King Sinmun, who recognized the need to control new
territory. Nine divisions were stationed in the capital,
each distinguished by the color of the collar on the uni-
form. Soldiers were drawn from all parts of the kingdom.
The strategic province of Hanju was provided with two
garrisons, while each of the remaining eight provinces
was accorded one military garrison. The army was under
the direct control of the king, a further index of the trend
to centralization.

To establish a philosophy of government, Sinmun
turned to Chinese precedents, and in 682 C.E. he founded
a national academy as a medium to teach Confucian
ethics. The Saniguk Sagi recorded that the basic texts of
instruction were the Spring and Autumn Annals,
(CHUNQIU), the classic of Changes (Yijing), and the Classic
of Documents (Shujing). The period of learning lasted for
nine years. Students were strictly graded, and those who
excelled were given preference for government positions.
Those who failed to achieve were expelled. This was a
prelude to the long and peaceful reign of his second son,
Songdok (702-737 C.E.). The government was organized
around the chipsahu, an executive council who pursued
royal policy. Under the chungsi, the head of the council of
state, there were six ministries that covered taxation, jus-
tice, the legal code, war, defense, and intelligence.

BURIALS

The archaeological remains of Shilla before unification
are dominated by burials. The earliest phases of state for-
mation might well be represented at Choyangdong. Dat-
ing to the first to second centuries C.E. the pit graves

from this site have furnished Han-style bronze mirrors
and exotic glass beads from as far afield as the Mediter-
ranean world. The burials from Kujongdong also include
pits containing wooden coffins. Grave goods included
iron spears and bronze swords. The six principal phases
of Shilla mortuary remains date from 300 to 550 C.E.
They are dominated by the royal graves at Kyongju,
where 155 mounds survive of a total that formerly
included many more. The construction technique made it
difficult to loot and plunder the contents of the tombs,
and fortunately several have survived intact. These are
usually named after a particularly notable item of grave
furniture.

The construction of the tombs began with a burial
chamber constructed of wood. That uncovered at the
TOMB OF THE HEAVENTY HORSE was 6.5 meters (21.5 ft.)
long and 4.2 meters (13.9 ft.) wide. A lacquered wooden
coffin was placed within, positioned so that the head
pointed to the rising Sun. A wooden container was adja-
cent to the coffin for the storage of mortuary offerings.
This was then covered by a massive tumulus of thou-
sands of heavy river boulders, with no reentry passage. At
the Heavenly Horse tomb, this cairn rose to a height of
7.5 meters (24.8 ft.), with a diameter of 47 meters (155
ft.). In turn, the stone mound was covered in earth to a
height of nearly 13 meters (43 ft.). The lack of any pas-
sage or entrance into the tomb chamber made it very dif-
ficult to loot, but the natural decay of the wooden
structure meant that in due course the weight of stone
boulders above crushed and destroyed it.

Foremost in the royal tombs are the gold crowns,
which took the form of treelike or antlerlike projections,
possibly an echo of shamanistic beliefs. Jade and gold
ornaments were attached to the trees, some in the form of
leaves. Other gold attachments fell as tassels from the ring
of the crown. The royal dead wore elaborate golden belts,
the one from the Golden Crown tomb attaining a length
of two meters. Again, they were embellished with gold
dangling ornaments, including a model of a fish and a
basket. The symbolism of these additions is not known.
The Washing Vessel tomb, so-called on the basis of the
bronze vessel found within, is dated by an inscription to
415 C.E. The burial also yielded a lacquered wooden mask
embellished with blue eyes and a gold background. Gold
finger and toe rings, bracelets, and heavily ornamented
earrings are also regularly encountered. The kings and
queens wore bronze shoes with gold attachments on the
soles, an impractical form of footwear possibly signifying
that they were regularly carried aloft on ceremonial occa-
sions. Male burials included much armor. There were iron
swords, arrowheads, helmets, as well as accoutrements for
horse riding, such as saddles, harness, and stirrups. Many
pottery vessels were placed as mortuary offerings, and
these are interesting largely for the decoration. There are
incised figures of animals, such as deer, boats, and war-
riors. Occasionally, human figurines are encountered.

Shi Qiang 315

OLD SHILLA ARCHITECTURE

The architectural remains of Old Shilla, is the period
before it controlled the -whole peninsula, are not great.
Sites are dominated by fortresses, several of which were
strategically placed around the capital of Kyongju.
Panwol-Song is the most significant, because it housed
the royal palace, as well as several other buildings whose
stone foundations are still visible. A stone-walled fort also
protected the important port of Pusan, where trade with
Japan was undertaken and two warehouses were built.
Buddhist temples were also constructed, one of which,
built by Queen Sondok in 645 C.E., survives to this day.
Investigations there have revealed the presence of Tang
dynasty Chinese porcelain, confirming that trade contact
with China was also pursued. The queen also had a nine-
meter-high astronomical observatory built.

There is a ninth-century record that detailed the
presence of 178,936 households in 1,360 residential
quarters. The fabulous wealth of the ruling aristocracy
was reflected in the presence of 35 mansions, whose
owners had one residence for each of the four seasons.
Endless rows of houses with tiled roofs, each set around a
private courtyard, were described.

UNIFIED SHILLA REMAINS

Excavations at Kyongju have provided a rare glimpse of
palace life; the great ornamental lake, known as the
Anapchi Pond, once part of the royal compound, was
investigated in 1975. After dredging, the original stone
banks revealed a lake that formerly covered 1.5 hectares
(3.75 acres). The eastern and northern banks were
indented and formed into a map that resembles Korea,
Japan, and the island of Taiwan, while the southern and
western banks were straight and flanked by interconnected
pavilions. The mud at the lake bottom has provided a rich
array of artifacts relating to palace life, including wooden
tablets bearing written records of administrative details.
These are dated between 751 and 774 C.E., but the roof
tiles were all dated in the two-year span of 679—80 C.E.
Evidently the pavilions had been given a new roof at that
period, or these years may have seen the completion of the
lake, because it has been ascribed to King Munmu, who
reigned from 661 to 681 C.E. A wooden die was inscribed
with brief recommendations, one of which exhorted young
men not to abandon an ugly woman partner. Four boats
were also recovered, a set of gilt bronze scissors, and sev-
eral gilt bronze images of the Buddha and BODHISATTVAS.

A fine example is from Mount P'algong, 60 kilome-
ters northwest of Kyongju. The Buddha is seen in a cave,
flanked by two bodhisattvas. Shilla craftspeople were also
adept at casting bronze figures, as seen in the guardians,
each standing about 22 centimeters (8.8 in.) in height,
from the Kamun-sa temple and dating to the late seventh
century C.E. Gold was also used as a medium for portray-
ing the Buddha. Two fine examples are from the Hwang-
bok-sa temple at Kyongju.

The specific Shilla style of architecture and associ-
ated sculpture developed by the eighth century; the most
prominent example is the SOKKURAM cave temple at
Mount Toham, near Kyongju. This famous site has three
chambers constructed of granite blocks; the circular
shrine room, with a diameter of eight meters (26.4 ft.),
contains the finest Shilla Buddha sculpture, standing 3.3.
meters (10.9 ft.) high. The Buddha sits serenely on a
throne, accompanied by images of bodhisattvas and disci-
ples located on the surrounding walls. The view of the
Buddha from the antechamber was enhanced by the two
large columns that supported the entrance arch at this
point. One unusual aspect of later Shilla sculpture was
the casting of images of the Buddha in iron, which was
then gilt. Some Shilla specialists maintained this tradition
after the rise of the Koryo state in 918 and the transfer of
the center of power in Korea to Kaesong, north of Seoul.

See also CONFUCIUS.

Further reading: Bagley, R. W. "A Shang City in
Sichuan Province," Orientations 21 (1990): 52-67; Bagley,
R. W. Ancient Sichuan. Seattle and Princeton: Seattle Art
Museum, 2001; Gao Dalun. "Bronze Ritual Artefacts of
the Shu Culture: A Preliminary Survey," Orientations 32
(2001): 45-51; Sage, S. E Ancient Sichuan and the Unifica-
tion oj China. Albany N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1992.

Shundi (Liu Bao; Submissive Emperor) (115-144 c.e.)
Shundi was the seventh emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty.
He was the only son of ANDI and acceded in 126 C.E. His
reign was intriguing from a historic point of view, for a
number of leading scholars had the temerity to criticize
the central administration for corruption and nepotism.
An earthquake at LUOYANG in 133 C.E., for example, moti-
vated Zhang Heng, the inventor of the world's first SEIS-
MOGRAPH, to urge on the court the restoration of power
to the emperor, the "Son of Heaven," rather than see

power continue to lie in the hands of royal cliques and
eunuchs. There was also criticism of court extravagances,
and a rebellion in the deep south was resolved through
the dispatch of senior officials to restore order rather than
the staging of a punitive military expedition.

Shunga dynasty The Shunga dynasty of India was
founded by Pushyamitra, a Brahman who killed the last
Mauryan king in about 180 B.C.E. The dynasty lasted for
about a century.

See also MAURYA EMPIRE.

Shwe Zigon The Shwe Zigon stupa at PAGAN in Myan-
mar (Burma) was begun by King Anawrahta (1044-77)
and completed by King KYANZITTHA (r. 1084-1111). It is
said to house the clavicle, part of the skull, and a tooth of
the Buddha. Its design set a precedent for many later
Burmese stupas. The circular stupa is raised on three ter-
races each decorated with glazed plaques illustrating
JATAKA TALE themes. Subsidiary temple buildings housing
images of the Buddha are located on each side.

Siddhartha Gautama (b. c. 560 b.c.e.) Siddhartha Gau-
tama was the name oj the Buddha before his enlightenment at
the age of 35.

His date of birth is controversial: He may have been born
in about 560 B.C.E. of a royal family, at LUMBINI in Nepal,
or up to 140 years later. Little is known of his early life,
since the evidence is almost entirely from oral tradition
rather than written records. The foundation of the Bud-
dhist religion was to have a major impact on the states of
Southeast Asia, many of which adopted his teachings.

See also BAYON; BOROBUDUR; BUDDHISM; JAYAVARMAN VII.

Further reading: Bhikkhu Nanamoli. The Life of the
Buddha: According to the Pali Canon. Seattle: BPS Pariyatti
Editions, 2001; Thich Nhat Hanh. The Heart of the Bud-
dha's Teaching: Transforming Suffering into Peace, Joy, and
Liberation: The Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold
Path, and Other Basic Buddhist Teachings. New York:
Broadway Books, 1999.

Sidun Sidun is a major site of the LLANGZHU CULTURE,
which dominated the lower Chang (Yangtze) Valley of
China from about 3000 to 2000 B.C.E. It is located
between the Chang River and Lake Taihu in Jiangsu
province and was defended by a series of moats that
enclosed an area of about 90 hectares (225 acres). A cir-
cular platform containing elite graves is the outstanding
feature of this site. One young man, for example, was
interred with 24 jade rings and 33 cong, a jade ritual arti-
fact with a circular interior and square surface. These
were very high-status items, and some were embellished
with carved designs of animal masks and birds.

322 Sigiri

Sigiri Sigiri is a remarkable complex located in central
Sri Lanka, which dates probably to the late fifth century
C.E. It is a palace and a fortified settlement and is
reno-wned for its frescoes depicting female figures.
Among the earliest surviving examples of Sri Lankan art,
they are thought to represent princesses -who resided on
Mount Kailasa, home of the gods.

Sikri Sikri is a site that has yielded many examples of
Gandharan art. It was discovered in 1888 in the Mardan
district of Pakistan. Although it claimed to be the first
site of this school of art to have been properly investi-
gated, its location is not known with certainty. The site is
best known for the statue of the fasting Buddha, but
many other examples of Gandharan art were also recov-
ered. These reveal many aspects of the architecture of the
day, including Corinthian and Persian columns, city gates
guarded by soldiers, and a -woman at a square well
pulling up -water. Scenes include the Buddha's first medi-
tation and the JATAKA TALE of the Dipamkara Buddha.
Thirty-five episodes in the Buddha's life are incorporated
in the reliefs from the stupa bases.

After the excavations, a site plan -was prepared, and
the sculptures -were lodged in the Lahore Museum. Fore-
most among these was the base of a subsidiary stupa lib-
erally ornamented with 13 panels of reliefs. Eleven
further panels, curved to fit around the drum base, prob-
ably are from the monastery's main stupa. The collection
was divided with the partition of India and Pakistan in
1947, some to Chandigarh, most remaining in Lahore.

See also CHAM CIVILIZATION.

Sutkagen Dor Sutkagen Dor is the most westerly of all
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION sites. It lies on a rocky shore in
-western Pakistan and -was discovered in 1875. SIR AUREL
STEIN briefly worked there, and limited excavations -were
later undertaken by George Dales. The site is dominated
by a rectangular stone--walled citadel measuring 335 by
200 meters (369 by 220 yds.), but the extent to which
there was occupation outside the defensive walls remains
to be determined. The walls are robust, to 7.5 meters
(24.8 ft.) wide at the base. It is possible that this site owes
its existence to the passage of Indus trade vessels to Near
Eastern ports. The pottery recovered belongs to the
mature Indus tradition of the later third millennium B.C.E.

svami (late fourth to the early third centuries B.C.E.)
KAUTILYA, a chief minister to King Candragupta Maurya
(325-297 B.C.E.) of the maurya empire in India, authored
a treatise on statecraft known as the Arthasastra. He iden-
tified seven vital elements, of -which the svami, or king,
occupied the key position.

tai-fu Under the HAN DYNASTY (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.) the
tai-fu was the most senior member of the government. His
official duty was to provide moral guidance to the emperor,
and the title has been translated as "grand tutor." The
office changed significantly between the Western and East-
ern Han dynasties. During the Western Han there were
only four such appointments, beginning with Wang Ling
in 187 B.C.E. and ending with WANG MANG, the future
usurper. As far as can be judged, the post was used mainly
as a -way of manipulating venerable but senior mandarins
into a virtual sinecure. With the enthronement of GUANG
WUDI in 25 C.E., however, the office was constantly filled,
beginning with Zhuo Mao. Many of the grand tutors under
the Eastern Han -were also appointed to the important post
of intendant of the Masters of writing and, with a large sec-
retariat, were responsible for the proper flow of informa-
tion to the emperor.

Taika Reforms The Taika Reforms were a vital part of
the increasing centralization of imperial authority in Japan.
In 645 C.E., the powerful Soga clan was eliminated from its
position of power in the YAMATO court. For generations
members of this clan had intermarried with the royal line
and dominated the political scene. Two men, the future em-
peror TENJI and Fuji-wara no Katamari, proceeded to intro-
duce in the name of the emperor Kotoku a series of laws
designed to weaken provincial resistance to the imperial
court and establish an autocracy on the model of Tang
China. The new regulations struck at the heart of the pro-
duction system of Japan by reallocating land from nobles
and designating it for the use of peasants. This was associ-
ated with a new system of taxation based on production.
Such a system necessitated a census to establish the tax base.

The reforms provided state support for the Buddhist
temples, a strong force in promoting the notion of impe-
rial supremacy. The long tradition of employing lavish and
ostentatious burial mounds (kofuns) to project the status
of local elites -was terminated by ne-w regulations limiting
the size of mounds and the number of people permitted to
work on them. This change can be confirmed, archaeolog-
ically, with a sharp fall in their number and size at this
juncture. The Taika Reforms were folio-wed by further
centralizing trends, particularly illustrated by the ne-w set
of penal and administrative laws established in 701 C.E.
and the rigid grading of ranks that ultimately led to the
autocratic NARA STATE centered at HEIJO-KYO.

Taixicun Taixicun is a major site of the SHANG STATE
(1766—1045 B.C.E.), located near Shijiazhuang in Hebei
province, China. There are three large mounds in an
occupied area of at least 10 hectares (25 acres). Excava-
tions have uncovered houses of between one and three
rooms constructed of stamped earth and unfired clay
BRICK, in addition to the foundations of a much larger
house. Sacrificial remains of humans and animals asso-
ciated with the large residence suggest that it was occu-
pied by an elite member of the community. The
presence of a social hierarchy is also evidenced in the
cemetery, where 58 graves have been opened. A small
number are particularly well endowed with mortuary
offerings, including fine bronze vessels, -weapons, jades,
gold ornaments, and ORACLE BONES. One burial incorpo-
rated a ledge to retain sacrificed bodies. Other graves
were markedly poorer and contained only ceramic ves-
sels and the occasional bronze. Pottery shards include
scratched written graphs, and a particularly interesting

336

Taosi 337

find, an ax, was made from meteoric rather than
smeUed iron.

Takamatsuzuka Takamatsuzuka is a late kofun, or
burial mound, of the YAMATO state of Japan, located in the
Nara Plain region of Honshu Island, Japan. It is signifi-
cant because, although long since looted, the central
burial chamber contained the remains of a lacquered cof-
fin. The chamber walls -were embellished with painted
scenes of the celestial bodies, mythical creatures, and
people dressed in the style of Korea. It dates to the late
seventh century C.E. and, with a diameter of 15 meters
(49.5 ft.) is a relatively small burial complex that might
have housed a courtier of Korean origin.

Taksasila See taxila.

Tamluk Tamluk is the modern name of the port city at
the mouth of the Rupnarayan River in India. It was men-
tioned by both Pliny (first century C.E.) and Ptolemy (sec-
ond century C.E.) as Taluctae or Tamalities. Other recorded
names are Tamralipta and Tamralipti. Excavations have
identified a long sequence of occupation with deep prehis-
toric roots and the presence of a flourishing port during
the Mauryan, SUNGA, and Gupta periods (325 B. C.E. -500
C.E.) Ceramics and intaglios evidence trade with the
Roman Empire. Although the modern occupation has
made extensive excavation difficult, it was a major center
of BUDDHISM, according to the reports of the Chinese
monks FAXLAN and XUANZANG. The latter emphasized the
wealth of the inhabitants in the seventh century C.E.
See also GUPTA EMPIRE; MAURYA EMPIRE.

Tanjung Rawa Tanjung Rawa is a site located on an
island at the mouth of the Selinsing River, on the west coast
of Malaysia. It documents early trade contact with India, in
the form of a gold ring with a Hindu motif and a seal of car-
nelian dated to the fourth or fifth century C.E. on the basis
of a brief text in SANSKRIT. It also has imported Chinese
glazed pottery; radiocarbon dates suggest a lengthy period
of occupation between the third and eighth centuries C.E.
The inhabitants interred the dead in wooden boat coffins.

Taoism Taoism represents one of the two major philo-
sophical schools of thought on the organization and
administration of the Chinese state; the other is Confu-
cianism. Taoism stresses detachment from the affairs of
the world, in contrast to Confucianism. The term taoist
does not enter the Chinese literature until the early HAN
DYNASTY, but preceding texts on the Taoist way are
known as the Huang Lao (Teachings of the Yellow
Emperor), or the Teaching of LAOZI. The date and career
of Laozi, "old master," is not known. There may have
been more than one author of the Daodejing, but there is
no doubting its importance in subsequent Chinese theo-

ries of governance. In 1973 a remarkable discovery in a
tomb at MAWANGDUI, dated to 168 B.C.E., included a ver-
sion of the Daodejing written in silk.

In attempting to appreciate the subtleties and nuances
of the Daodejing, it is necessary to understand the political
ferment during the course of its compilation. This WAR-
RING STATES PERIOD (475-221 B.C.E.) saw the replacement
of the old feudal order of the Zhou dynasty by a period of
constant warfare among a diminishing number of states,
as QIN achieved military preeminence. QIN SHIHUANGDI,
the first emperor of a forcibly united China, introduced a
centralized autocracy rooted in repression and military
power. His dynasty barely outlived his own life, however,
and the ensuing Han rulers inherited a vast new empire
without any established rules of conduct. Were they to
follow in the autocratic footsteps of their predecessor or
develop a new form of government that could still hold
together the many divergent and formerly independent
kingdoms that made up their empire?

In contrast to Confucianism, which was compiled dur-
ing the Spring and Autumn period (770—476 B.C.E.) and ad-
vocated a direct, compassionate, and humanistic approach
of the sovereign, Taoism adopted a mystical and almost
metaphysical approach rooted in the concept of Tao. Tao-
ism encourages acceptance of the concept of wuwei, a word
not subject to simple translation. It involves the ruler's dis-
tancing himself in a remote and tranquil way from the lives
of the people, through a harmonious and yielding accep-
tance of order eschewing warfare, ostentation, and vanity.

The Daodejing became particularly influential during
the first six decades of the HAN DYNASTY. It comprises 81
chapters and is written partly in prose and partly in
poetry. By employing a rich variety of metaphors, it
explores the nature of the way:

Thirty spokes conjoin in one hub;

there being nothing in between,

the cart is useful.

clay is molded into a vessel;

there being nothing inside,

the vessel is useful.

doors and windows are carved out to make a room:

there being nothing within,

the room is useful.

thus, with something one gets advantage,

while with nothing one gets usefulness.

(de Bary and Bloom 1999)

Further reading: De Barry, W. T., and I. Bloom, eds.
Sources of Chinese Tradition. New York: Columbia Univer-
sity Press, 1999; Kohn, D., ed. Daoisni Handbook. Hand-
book of Oriental Studies, 14. Leiden: Brill, 2000; Miller, J.
Daoisni: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld Publica-
tions, 2003.

Taosi Taosi is a major site of the TONGSHAN CULTURE,
located north of the Huang (Yellow) River in Shanxi

338 taotie

province, China. The radiocarbon dates obtained during
the excavations between 1978 and 1985 indicate that it
was occupied during the last few centuries of the third mil-
lennium B.C.E. With an area of at least 300 hectares (750
acres), it is the largest Neolithic site known in China. The
finds included the remains of houses, kilns for firing
ceramic vessels, and storage pits, but it is best known for
its cemetery, which covers three hectares (7.5 acres).
Almost 1,000 graves have been uncovered. The most
important aspect of the cemetery is the division of burials
into three groups on the basis of their size and mortuary
offerings. These three groups have been subdivided into a
further seven types on the basis of size and grave furniture.

The nine elite graves were up to three meters (10 ft.)
in length and were exclusive to adult males. They were
richly endowed with grave goods, including fine ceramic
vessels decorated with red painted designs. One such
design reveals a coiled snake in red against a black back-
ground, its tongue fully extended and scales represented
by alternating red and black forms. Wooden vessels also
survived, some painted and others covered in LACQUER.
The jades included adzes, knives, cong tubes, and hi disks
that were in all probability used by the leaders of Taosi in
rituals. The man buried in Tomb 3015 v^^as accompanied
by two wooden drums, painted and incorporating alligator-
skin striking surfaces, as well as stone chimes and three
dogs. These burials also included whole pig skeletons,
large chime stones, and stone arrowheads.

The majority (87 percent) were small, barely large
enough to take the body. There are two subgroups: those
with no grave goods and those equipped only with such
items as a bone pin, a pottery vessel, or part of a pig's
jawbone.

Eighty graves (11.4 percent of the sample) belong to
the medium group. These were large enough to take a
wooden coffin and reached a length of 2.5 meters (8.25
ft.) and a width of up to 1.5 meters (4.95 ft.). One of
these included a copper bell, indicating, as do other late
Longshan settlements, that metallurgical skills had
reached the central plains. The absence of any evidence at
Taosi for smelting or casting makes it likely that this item
was imported. The rich subset of this medium group
were interred in a wooden coffin with cinnabar, a group
of painted ceramic vessels, wooden bowls, and jade orna-
ments together with pigs' jawbones. A middle subgroup
also contained cinnabar, but no pottery vessels and few
pigs' jawbones and jades. The poorest graves in the
medium sample were buried with one or two pigs'
mandibles, a bone pin, and stone ornaments.

This site is one of the clearest indicators of social
ranking before the development of the XIA DYNASTY based
at ERLITOU.

taotie The taotie symbol is an image of an animal's head
in frontal view, formed from two animals facing each

other, found on early Chinese ritual bronzes. It probably
had a much earlier ancestry before the development of
casting decorated bronze vessels dating from the early
SHANG STATE (1766-1045 B.C.E.) to the middle to late
WESTERN ZHOU DYNASTY (1045-771 B.C.E.). The bronze
frontlet with TURQUOISE inlay from a tomb belonging to
Period 2 at ERLITOU (c. 1900-1800 B.C.E.) has a simple
form of taotie mask. Possibly the earliest examples are to
be seen on the pottery vessels of the LOWER XIAJIADIAN
CULTURE at DADIANZI (2300-1600 B.C.E.). The actual term
is documented first in the ZUOZHUAN (770-481 B.C.E.),
where it was described as one of four evil animals given
to gluttony, and indeed the depiction of the taotie usually
incorporated a human or an animal in the creature's
mouth. It is not known what the motif was called during
the Shang dynasty. Its earliest form is virtually confined
to a pair of eyes surrounded by abstract designs, but over
time its rendition began to include more animal-face fea-
tures without metamorphosing into a recognizable crea-
ture. Its use was widespread over time and space in
China. It is found, for example, on a ritual ax from the
Shang tomb of EU HAO and on a vessel from the early site
of PANLONGCHENG (1500-1200 B.C.E.). Many examples
are from the Western Zhou dynasty corpus of bronzes,
such as the Zhifangtou tomb and the Zhuangbai hoard
(771 B.C.E.). It is also, however, represented on bronzes

The Shang rulers of China had ritual vessels cast in bronze to
feast the ancestors. This example was decorated with taotie
mask images. (O Asian Art & Archaeology, Inc./CORBIS)

Tariiti Basin 339

from SANXINGDUI in Sichuan (1400-1200 B.C.E.). A fine
example of a jade taotie mask was found in the tomb of
the second king oi yue, dated to the second century B.C.E.
This example held in its mouth a jade hi disk. The latter
■were regarded as auspicious symbols. While it is hard to
be precise on the symbolic meaning of the taotie itself, its
presence on bronzes designed to feast and honor the dead
ancestors makes it probable that it represented death.

Ta Prohm The temple of Ta Prohm, formerly known as
Rajavihara, was built to honor the mother of JAYAVARMAN VII
(1181-1219 C.E.) of ANGKOR in Cambodia. Set within a
■wall of laterite one kilometer long by 600 meters (1100 by
660 yds.) lie two courts enclosed by passageways, each con-
taining many small single-chambered temples. The founda-
tion stela was written by Sri Suryakumara (the Sun prince),
one of the king's sons, and was set in place in 1186 C.E. The
temple housed many statues of divinities. The principal
image, said to be covered in gems, represented the king's
mother in the form of the mother of Buddha. There ■were
also many other images. Indrakumara mentions 260 in the
shrines. Brief INSCRIPTIONS name the statues that once stood
■within, and they suggest that the complex incorporated not
only the principal image of the king's mother, but also fam-
ily shrines with images of the ancestors of members of his
court. Thus the monument was a center for the worship of
deified ancestors. The foundation inscription provides a
glimpse of the temple in its heyday, revealing it as a symbol
of royal and dynastic power and a generator of both reli-
gious and economic activity, around which a whole society
in miniature operated. Eighteen high priests and 2,740 offi-
cials lived and worked there, together with 2,202 assistants,
■who included 615 female dancers; 12,640 people had the
right to lodge there.

Feeding and clothing this multitude involved the
provision of rice, honey, molasses, oil, fruit, sesame, mil-
let, beans, butter, milk, salt, and vegetables, all the quan-
tities scrupulously listed for appropriation from the royal
foundations and warehouses. Clothing ■was also required,
and even the number of mosquito nets is set down. In all,
79,365 men and WOMEN ■were assigned to supply the tem-
ple. The foundation's assets included gold and silver ves-
sels, 35 diamonds, 40,620 pearls, 4,540 precious stones
such as beryl, copper goblets, tin, lead, 512 silk beds, 876
veils from China, cushions, and 523 sunshades. There
■were musical instruments "to charm the spirit," and for
nightfall or for rituals, there were 165,744 ■wax torches.

Tarim Basin The Tarim Basin in western China occu-
pies a strategic position west of the Gansu Corridor and
east of TRANSOXIANA, on the SILK ROAD. It lies north of the
Kunlun Shan range and south of the Tien Shan. The
rivers flowing from these mountain ranges enter the low
and flat basin and form oases before they dry up as they
enter the arid Taklamakan Desert. These oases are poten-

tially productive and attracted settlement from the pre-
historic period. Indeed, there is now a consistent body of
evidence to indicate that the favorable oases around the
Tarim Basin ■were occupied from at least the second mil-
lennium to the dawn of the historical period. The people
in question must have moved into the area from the ■west
and almost certainly spoke an Indo-European language or
languages ancestral to the historically recorded Tochar-
ian. With the quickening of trade during the QIN and HAN
dynasties, many small centers emerged under local rulers.
They ■were, ho^wever, so ■widely distributed around the
southern and northern margins of the basin that they
formed independent polities. As such, they were not suf-
ficiently po^werful to withstand pressure from the people
kno^wn as the XIONGNU, ancestors of the Huns ■who
exerted considerable influence through the speed of their
horses and their ability to concentrate forces. As the Han
Chinese sho^wed increasing interest in what they called
the western regions during the second century B.C.E., so
the states of the Tarim Basin fell under Chinese control,
gaining independence only during periods of central Han
■weakness or preoccupation elsewhere. The History of the
Former Han (hanshu) and the SHIJI both provide historic
accounts of the Han expansion to the northwest. They
name 36 polities and provide both a census and the num-
ber of soldiers that each could deploy. Essentially, the Silk
Road could follow two routes that passed through these
little kingdoms. Both began at DUNHUANG in the east and
terminated at KAXGAR (Kashgar) in the west. The north-
ern route passed from east to ■west through LOU-LAN or
Turpan, Yanqi, Kuqa (Kucha), and Yarkand. The southern
route foUo^wed the oases lying on the southern fringe of
the Kunlun range, through QIEMO, NIYA, and HOTAN.

CHINESE EXPANSION

During the disruptions caused by the end of the Qin and
the establishment of the Western Han dynasty, the Tarim
states were tributaries of the Xiongnu. Consolidation
under Han ■WUDI (r. 141—87 B.C.E.), however, presented
the opportunity for the Chinese to exert their influence
in the Tarim Basin. The emperor dispatched Zhang Qian
on a diplomatic mission in about 138 B.C.E. to secure
intelligence on this area and attempt to forge alliances
against the power of the Xiongnu. His journey is
recorded in the Shiji of SIMA QIAN and provides one of the
first eyewitness accounts of the Tarim Basin and beyond
to BACTRIA and FERGHANA. Of the Lopnor region of the
eastern Tarim Basin, he wrote, "The Loulan and Gushi
peoples live in fortified cities along the Salt Swamp. The
Salt Swamp is some 5,000 li from CHANG'an."

A Chinese military expedition in 108 B.C.E. put the
eastern settlements of the Tarim Basin under Han control,
and a decade later the ■whole area ■was taken. This hege-
mony was disrupted during the WANG MANG interregnum
(8-23 C.E.), but the trade along the Silk Road was too

340 Tarim Basin

important to forgo, and by the mid-first century C.E.,
Eastern Han authority -was reasserted. The passage of
trade caravans to the west was then accompanied by the
spread of BUDDHISM to the east.

EARLY INVESTIGATIONS

Both the description in Chinese accounts of walled cities
and the known spread of Buddhism have attracted a
number of scholars interested in the peoples of the area.
Abel Remusat (1788-1832) wrote the first history of the
state of HOTAN. Early expeditions were undertaken largely
by Russian explorers. Chokan Valikhanov (1835-65)
identified evidence for Buddhism near Kuqa (Kucha);
Nikolay Przhevalsky (1839-88) led a series of expedi-
tions to the Tarim region and encountered the desiccated
prehistoric burials of people with European features.
Later archaeological expeditions to the Tarim Basin dur-
ing the late 19th and early 20th centuries led to the dis-
covery and exploration of some major sites. Between
1868 and 1872, Freidrich von Richthofen (1833-1905)
recognized the now dry lakebed of Lopnor, the same salt
swamp noted by Zhang Qian. Sven Hedin (1865-1952)
undertook many major scientific expeditions and identi-
fied important archaeological sites that included the des-
iccated mummies of the Qawrighul culture. Paul Pelliot
(1878-1945) was a French Sinologist who visited and
removed a considerable number of documents from the
Buddhist caves of Dunhuang. SIR AUREL STEIN (1862-1943)
was the most active archaeologist to explore the Tarim
Basin in the early years of discovery. Beginning in 1900
he mounted four expeditions into Central Asia. The first
took him to Hotan, a center in the southwestern margin
of the Tarim Basin. He also inveigled himself into the
good offices of the overseer at Dunhuang and managed to
secure a huge collection of Buddhist manuscripts that are
now housed in the British Museum in London.

RECENT EXCAVATIONS

In recent years archaeological research in the Tarim Basin
has provided much vital and surprising information. The
area is so dry that organic material has survived in sites
often covered by drifting sand after their abandonment. It
is evident that the oases were settled by farming commu-
nities originating in the West. Surviving documents have
been found to be written in the Tocharian language, a
member of the Indo-European family. Moreover, the des-
iccated mummies from Tarim burial sites have clear
European rather than East Asian features. Their woolen
clothes were also woven with patterns matched in west-
ern Europe.

Early Sites

Qawrighul in China is the earliest cemetery site to fur-
nish human remains with Western affinities. It is located
in the Konchi River Valley in the northeastern fringe of
the basin and dates between 2000 and 1500 B.C.E. The

dead were interred under woolen blankets and were asso-
ciated with sprigs of ephedra, a plant with medicinal
qualities thought to have been a component of soma.
Soma was drunk during rituals by the Indo-Iranian-
speaking peoples and was mentioned in the Vedic texts of
India. A well-preserved woman interred at this site had
fair hair. The nearby site of Kroran has also furnished
burials of the same period, the most notable that of a
woman who died when aged about 45 years. She wore
woolen clothing, a felt hat with two goose feathers, and
leather boots. Her facial features were emphatically West-
ern, and her hair was fair. These people took with them
to the Tarim oases sheep and goats, wheat, and barley.

Later Sites

To the northeast of Qawrighul, the cemetery of Qizil-
choqa has been excavated and found to date to the early
first millennium B.C.E. Again, Western features are char-
acteristic of the dead, and the presence of barley and
body tattoos also points to a westerly origin. In 1992 a
cemetery was excavated at Subeshi on the northern mar-
gin of the basin. Several burials were uncovered, dating to
about 400 B.C.E. One man wore a felt helmet, sheepskin
coat, and leather leggings. He has been labeled a warrior,
because he was accompanied by a bow and arrows made
of bronze, iron, and bone. Perhaps the most extraordi-
nary of the finds from this site were the remains of
WOMEN interred with tall pointed hats resembling those
associated with witches in European society. One of them
was interred with a leather bag containing her cosmetic
set, including a COMB.

Similar material has been found at Qaradong, near
the later center of Kuqa (Kucha). Excavations there
revealed the remains of a settlement, in which the houses
were made of wood and the inhabitants cultivated millet.
The southern margins of the Tarim Basin also attracted
early settlement. At Zaghunluq, a remarkable grave nine
meters (29.7 ft.)deep was excavated in 1985. It contained
the remains of a man and three women, who had been
covered by layers of matting, animal skins, and wood.
The clothing from this burial only extremely well pre-
served and abundant and was also important from the
point of view of weaving techniques. One cap had been
knitted, and a shirt was of woven wool. The man wore
woolen trousers with a multicolored belt and high leather
boots. The weaving technique here and in the site of
Qizilchoqa employed a plaid twill with a tartan design
whose closest parallels were founded in contemporary
sites in western Europe.

CHINESE-DOMINATED SITES

The Han Chinese refer to the presence of the 36 city-
states of the western region. Based on their fertile oases,
these polities were in all probability occupied by the
descendants of those found in the preceding prehistoric
cemeteries. They were never powerful enough singly to

Tarim Basin 341

■withstand the power of the Xiongnu, nor were they able
to coalesce into a larger political unit because of their iso-
lation. Therefore, they were always subjected to either
Xiongnu raids or Han Chinese expansion.

Niya
The best documented is the oasis state of Niya, on the
southern margin of the basin. Here the remains of the
ancient settlement line the dried-out bed of the Niya
River over a distance of 25 by 10 kilometers (15 by 0.6
mi.). The remains of wooden house posts still stood over
the drifting sand when the site was explored by Sir Aurel
Stein, who also found the remains of a wooden bridge
over the ancient river course. The houses had been con-
structed of wooden uprights bearing a wattle frame cov-
ered with mud daub. Each had a fireplace, and the mud
of the living space floors contained wheat straw and co-w
dung. The inhabitants were most proficient in iron work-
ing, and the long prehistoric tradition of weaving contin-
ued, as is evidenced by the outstanding -woolen, linen,
and cotton garments recovered from the graves. Stein's
record of his visit to Niya illustrates the extraordinary
preservation of the remains of this settlement. He found,
for example, wattle walls of tamarisk twigs that still stood
to a height of about 60 centimeters (2 ft.). A second
building was almost completely covered by sand, but on
removing it Stein found pottery vessels and -wooden arti-
facts. Beyond the houses, he encountered the remains of
an ancient vineyard. It was enclosed by a fence covering
an area of 230 by 135 meters (253 by 149 yds.), in which
the posts that -would have supported the trellises
remained in serried rows about five or six meters apart.
Even the vine stems survived against their supporting
posts. Fruit trees also grew there: apricots, peaches,
apples, and walnuts.

Kroran, Hotan, Kaxgar, Kuqa
Kroran, another city-state, is located at the eastern end of
the Tarim Basin. Its stamped-earth -walls cover an area of
about 10 hectares (25 acres), and the interior of the city
included the foundations of temples, residences, and offi-
cial buildings. Hotan in the far west of China was one of
the major city-states, located where several rivers flo-w
into the piedmont from the mountains to the south. It
has long been renowned as a source of jade, while its
strategic position rendered it vulnerable to more powerful
peoples. Kaxgar (Kashgar) in northwest China was one of
the richest city-states of the Tarim, and there are many
early sites in the area around the modern city. It was also
notable for the early development of a silk industry. Kuqa
(Kucha) in northwest China -was the center of a flourish-
ing city-state with a long history. There are many early
settlements there, including the temples of Subeshi,
-where inscriptions in the Tocharian language have sur-
vived. These are but the major states of the Tarim, and
they present many important issues needing further reso-
lution, not least the degree to which the populace

included the descendants of the Indo-European-speaking
peoples who seem to have introduced Western agricul-
tural crops, livestock, and weaving technology.

HAN DOMINANCE AND TRADE

The ensuing phase of Tarim Basin history saw the
increasing dominance of the Han Chinese, as they estab-
lished western provinces, sent garrison troops, and built
their o-wn military settlements. This led to an influx of
Han objects and expansion of trade. Chinese silks were
imported, often as gifts from the emperor to dependent
rulers; cotton from India was also found. Vines were
introduced from the west; mulberry trees and sericulture
originated in the east. The city-states in the broad reach
of the Han also used Chinese coins, -which are abun-
dantly found in the Tarim Basin, except in Hotan, where
the coins were minted with the local king's name in the
KHAROSHTHI script. Archaeologically, -watchto-wers are the
most obvious remains of the Han period. These were
designed to warn the local garrisons of an impending
attack by the Xiongnu, and some still stand up to 10
meters (33 ft.) in height. These towers -were integral units
of small walled enclosures with a building within to
accommodate the guards. The top of these beacons con-
tained a facility for burning wood by night or emitting
smoke by day. From Kuqa to the Jade Gate and then on to
Dunhuang and China proper, it was possible to transmit
-warnings of the gathering of the Xiongnu to the capital of
Chang'an within a day.

The garrisons themselves -were established to control
and ward off attack from the Xiongnu. They -were sup-
posed to supply themselves locally, and their IRRIGATION
canals to carry water to the fields and the field ridges
themselves are still visible on the margins of the Qizil
River. The irrigation system of the Miran River area was
particularly sophisticated, involving subterranean chan-
nels to carry water from melted snow to the fields. There
-were main and branch canals in a complex distribution
system. Much information on these military colonies,
-which introduced a marked infusion of Chinese settlers
into the western regions for the first time, can be gained
from the -written documents on wood that have survived
in this arid environment. Colonists and their families
from all regions of the Han empire settled and engaged in
both agricultural and defense. The presence of Han sol-
diers also provided the peaceful conditions necessary for
the operation of the trading caravans that plied the Silk
Road. The walled cities acted as intermediaries or way
stations in this exchange, as increasing quantities of Chi-
nese silks were taken westward.

INTRODUCTION OF BUDDHISM

But such exchange also involved the spread of ideas that, in
the Tarim Basin, saw the establishment of foreign enclaves
in the walled cities and the introduction of Buddhism.
Buddhist monuments and their precious archives of

342 Taruma

manuscripts, have survived from the third century C.E., and
Sir Aurel Stein was responsible for discovering and opening
several Buddhist sites of outstanding importance. On 8
December 1906, he encountered by chance the site of
MIRAN. He returned to excavate it the following year and
uncovered a series of extraordinary wall paintings and mas-
sive stucco images of the Buddha, documents dating to the
fourth century C.E., and the foundations of stupas. The sub-
sequent research on the material at this site has confirmed a
flourishing community by the third century C.E., whose art
shows strong parallels with that of western Central Asia.

The area of Kuqa also contains important evidence
for the establishment of Buddhism from the west. Qizil
and Qumtura incorporate shrines cut into the hillside. At
the former, the temples contain -wall paintings, one of
which depicts benefactors wearing sumptuous long
embroidered coats -with long sleeves and trousers, with
swords hanging from their belts. The women -wore long
flowing skirts and tightly fitting bodices, both with
matching patterned decoration. One painting even sho-ws
the artist at -work. These people -were depicted with blond
or red hair, and the graffiti on the cave walls contained
instructions to the artists in the Tocharian language.

Niya has also furnished evidence of Buddhist -worship.
Stein found the remains of a stupa, and a large assemblage
of documents -written in Kharoshthi and Chinese dating to
the third century C.E. These include permits issued by the
Chinese to merchants traversing the Silk Road and indicate
that during that period Niya was part of the kingdom of
SHAN-SHAN. More recent research has led to the discovery
of more documents and a double burial of a man and a
woman dating to the third or fourth century C.E. It
included a complete and elegant coat of silk embroidered
with Chinese characters and fragments of paper.

Further reading: Barber, E. W. The Mummies of
Urumchi. New York: W. W. Norton, 2000; Mallory, J. P. In
Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and

Myth. London: Thames and Hudson, 1991; ., and

Mair, V. H. The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the
Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. London:
Thames & Hudson, 2000.

Taruma Four inscriptions in the style of the mid-fifth
century C.E. have been identified in western Java in
Indonesia. They mention a state called Taruma and its
king, Purnavarman. These are the earliest evidence in
Java for the formation of states ruled by kings who had
adopted Indian names and Hindu religion, suggesting
that as in the maritime state of EUNAN on the mainland,
international trade was deeply affecting strategically
placed island communities.

Tatetsuki Tatetsuki is a large mounded tomb located
near Kurashiki on the northern shore of the Inland Sea in
Japan. During the third century C.E., the YAMATO state

developed in its heartland, the Nara Basin. It was charac-
terized by kojun — dominating earthen mounds covering
stone-lined mortuary chambers. These contained the
dead aristocrats -who formed the basis of Japan's first civi-
lization. Some scholars have suggested that this develop-
ment owes much to the intrusion of elite horse-riding
warriors from the Korean Peninsula. Ho-wever, Tatetsuki
is a mounded tomb that some authorities date to the pre-
ceding late YAYOI period (300 B. C.E. -300 C.E.), although
some doubt exists as to whether it should in fact be
ascribed to the early Yamato period itself. It measures 70
meters (23 ft.) across at its maximal extent. The evidence
from the tomb suggests the possibility that there were
local precedents for the kojun so characteristic of the
Yamato state.

Excavations in 1976 showed that the top of the
mound had been deliberately leveled, and five large
stones had been put in place. Three of these lined the
edge of the central burial pit. The surviving parts of two
projections from the circular main mound had been
paved. The principal grave was a pit in which a -wooden
chamber had been constructed. This contained a wooden
coffin two meters (6.6 ft.) long, the base of which was
lined with as much as 30 kilograms (66 lbs.) of cinnabar.
Grave goods included a necklace made of jade, agate, and
jasper beads and an iron dagger. Jasper and glass beads
lay beside the dagger. The burial chamber had been filled
with soil and a layer of pebbles that included broken pot-
tery vessels and parts of a stone statue. It is considered
likely that these accumulated during feasting or mortuary
rituals. A smaller burial was found on the mound, but it
was poorly preserved and smaller than the main tomb.
The exotic beads of jasper and the presence of cinnabar
point to exchange -with other parts of Japan for exotic
goods. Contemporary Yayoi sites also included HANIWA,
clay cylinders that recur regularly in Yamato contexts.

Taxila Taxila in modern Pakistan is one of the great
cities of ancient India. It -was first described by SIR
ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM, who discovered the ruins of
Taxila during his 1863-64 field season. The successive
cities there flourished for about 1,000 years, from the
fifth century B.C.E. until the city was razed by the Huns.
When the site was visited by the Chinese pilgrim XUAN-
ZANG in the seventh century C.E., it was deserted, but he
commented on the fertile soils of the region, mild cli-
mate, many springs, and luxuriant vegetation. Taxila
changed hands on many occasions, and three separate
cities can be identified on the site: the BHIR MOUND,
Sirkap, and Sirsukh. The initial foundation saw Taxila as
the capital of GANDHARA, a province controlled by DARIUS
THE GREAT, king of Persia, -who invaded northeast India in
518 B.C.E. HERODOTUS OE HALICARNASSUS described this
province as the richest in the Persian empire. After a
short period of Greek control, the city -was incorporated

Taxila 343

into the MAURYA EMPIRE under CANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (r.
325—297 B.C.E.)- It thus became a regional or provincial
center under the ultimate control of the Mauryan kings at
Pataliputra. It was during this period that the city no-w
known as the Bhir mound was constructed. With the col-
lapse of the Mauryans, Taxila fell under the control of the
Indo-Greek kingdom of BACTRIA, and until the first cen-
tury B.C.E. the second city known as Sirkap was occupied.
Brief periods under the Scythians, known in India as the
SAKAS, and Parthians followed. In about 60-79 C.E. Taxila
again changed hands and fell under the dominance of the
KUSHANS under Kujula Kadphises. In the fourth century
C.E., Taxila was conquered by the Sassanian king Shapur
II, and a century later the Chinese pilgrim EAXIAN com-
mented on the number of Buddhist shrines there. This
■was the prelude, however, to the destruction of the city
by marauding White Huns between 390 and 460, and it
never recovered.

The original name, Taksasila, the city of cut stone, is
probably an allusion to the use of stone in the construc-
tion of the defenses and buildings within. It owed its
■wealth to its strategic location, for it lies near the left bank
of the Indus and the eastern entrance to the Khyber Pass.
It also has easy links across the Punjab to the Ganges
(Ganga) Valley. It thus commanded a crossroads, with
access to the SILK ROAD to the north, the rich communities
of the Ganges (Ganga) to the east, and through the Khy-
ber Pass to the Western world. MEGASTHENES, ambassador
of SELEUCUS I NICATOR to the Mauryan court at PATALIPU-
TRA in about 300 B.C.E., described the royal road linking
the capital ■with Taxila and then on to the ■west. This loca-
tion, however, was also a liability because the same routes
that carried trade gave access to invasions.

ACHAEMENID, GREEK, SAKA,
AND PARTHIAN RULERS

Initially, the Achaemenid province was strictly controlled
from Susa, the capital of the ACHAEMENID EMPIRE. But as
the central po^wer began to slacken under the reign of
Artaxerxes II (404-359 B.C.E.), the rulers of Taxila began
to exert independence. The city then fell to the conquer-
ing army of ALEXANDER THE GREAT of Macedon in 326
B.C.E., and the local ruler Ambhi allied himself with the
Greek host. It is recorded that Ambhi cemented this
alliance with gifts of elephants, bulls, and sheep. Lavish
hospitality and the exchange of gifts foUo^wed, and
Alexander then placed Philip, one of his generals, in
charge of Taxila. Philip's control ■was short lived, for he
■was assassinated in 324 B.C.E., and Greek control rapidly
dissolved. Greek written sources do not illuminate any
aspect of the city but do mention some of the local cus-
toms, such as the burning of wido^ws and exposing of the
dead to be consumed by birds. The author Philostratus
described the city's fortifications and the grid pattern of
the roads. The Scythian conquest ■was achieved under a

leader called Moga or Maues in Greek, ■whose name is
recorded on a copper inscription at Taxila dated probably
70-80 B.C.E. He took the title hasileus in Greek and
Maharaja in the KHAROSHTHI texts seen in his COINAGE.
The Scythians succumbed to the Parthians under King
Gondophares in the early years of the first century C.E.
This ruler is best known in the West on the basis of a
record in the Apocrypha that Saint Thomas the apostle
visited India and encountered him. A large earthquake
afflicted the city during this period, and many buildings
■were destroyed. Rebuilding to a ne^w and stronger design
followed.

KUSHAN AND SASSANIAN DOMINATION

One notable result of the Kushan attack was that the
inhabitants of Sirkap seem to have buried their valuables,
recovered by SIR JOHN MARSHALL 2,000 years later. His
excavations encountered t^wo pottery vessels containing
exquisite treasures. One had an image of Eros and Psyche
five centimeters (2 in.) high in gold repousse ■work. A pair
of golden earrings ■was found in the same vessel. They are
in the form of a crescent with pendants attached. There
are three pendants of flowers and gold bangles. One of the
most outstanding pieces is a necklace made of 43 individ-
ual plaques joined by two thin gold wires. The plaques
incorporated oval insertions made of crystal, surrounded
by tiny fish facing one another, each embellished with tiny
pieces of inlaid shell. A gold belt ■with no fewer than 494
pieces threaded together is another tour de force of the
gold worker's art. Nearly all the items in the vessel ■were
made of gold; there ■were also items of silver, copper gilt,
glass, chalcedony, and silver coins. One ■was issued by a
king Sapedana, a ruler who acknowledged Pacores as
overlord. Pacores succeeded King Gondophares, who
ruled Taxila in the mid-first century C.E. This knowledge
assists in the dating of these hoards.

A silver inscription dated to 78 C.E. discovered in a
chapel at the Buddhist temple the DHARMARAJIKA refers to
the king of Taxila as supreme king of kings, son of the
gods, the Kushana. This probably refers to Vima Kad-
phises. His successor, the Kushan king KANISHKA I,
founded the third city, known as Sirsukh. The Kushan
kings were Buddhist, and they were responsible for many
large religious monastic foundations, including the
Kalawan, Giri, and Mohra Moradu.

As Kushan power declined, so that of Sassanian Per-
sia grew. King Ardashir, ■who founded the Sassanian
dynasty, expanded his kingdom into northwest India. An
inscription from Persepolis in Persia records that the Sas-
sanian king Shapur II in 356 C.E. occupied modern Kabul
and instituted campaigns in the Punjab.

EXCAVATIONS

This rich textual record and the many allusions in West-
ern and Indian sources to the wealth of Taxila present an
intriguing challenge to archaeology. Taxila was discovered

344 Taxila

Taxila was one of the centers of Candharan art. This frieze,
dating to the early centuries C.E., shows the Buddha and
devotees. (Art Resource, NY)

in the late 19th century by Sir Alexander Cunningham
and -was the focus of major excavations by Sir John Mar-
shall between 1913 and 1935; SIR MORTIMER WHEELER
worked there in 1944-45.

Bhir Mound

Excavations by Marshall at the Bhir mound, the earliest
city, reached the natural substrate at a depth of about 5.5
meters (18 ft.) and encountered the remains of four super-
imposed structures. The earliest, of which little is known
because of its depth and destruction by later construction
activity, dates to the fifth century B.C.E. at the latest. The
second was in occupation during the fourth century B.C.E.
and would have witnessed the arrival of Alexander the
Great. The third phase corresponds to the period of Mau-
ryan control, and the last probably belongs to the period
after the decline of the Mauryas and the arrival of the BAC-
TRIAN GREEKS in the second century B.C.E. The excavations
revealed streets, lanes, and domestic houses. The quality
of the stone masonry developed over time from fairly
rough to a much more compact form, and the walls were
covered in a mud plaster strengthened with straw.

Most of the available plans derive from the third
period, the Mauryan city. The layout of the streets and
houses is irregular. It is evident that the main street and
various squares were retained throughout the life of the
city, whereas houses were leveled and rebuilt on occasion,
but on the same site and often following a plan similar to
that used for their predecessors. Some lanes branching off
the main streets are very narrow. The drains running
along the main street were to take rainwater. There was
no city sewage system, but each house was equipped with
a deep pit to receive human waste. Such latrines were
also placed in public squares. There were several types of
latrines. They have in common a deep circular well-like
hole extending up to seven meters (23 ft.) into the
ground. Some were filled with broken pottery shards to

allow wastes to filter downward. Others were lined with
ceramic rings: One of these held 14 such liners, each 65
centimeters (26 in.) wide. A third type was filled with
large ceramic jars one on top of the other, each having
the base removed to form one continuous tube. Large
stone rubbish bins were also strategically placed in public
areas, and excavations revealed broken pottery and ani-
mal bones. The houses were a series of large rooms
grouped around a courtyard. Windows looking onto the
street were tall but very narrow. Many rooms were small,
and others had a street frontage and were probably shops.
One appears to have been the business of a shell worker,
since Marshall found much cut shell within.

As might be expected in the excavation of so large an
area of an ancient city, many artifacts were recovered.
Beads had many forms, with a preference for glass, car-
nelian, and agate. Other semiprecious stones included
onyx, amethyst, beryl, and garnet. A remarkable hoard of
1,167 silver coins was discovered in the second city,
including a silver Persian coin and two coins of Alexander
the Great. Among the bronzes, particular attention is
given to a third-century B.C.E. bowl made of an alloy con-
taining 21.55 percent tin. This alloy and the shape of the
vessel recall those found in the Thai cemetery of BAN DON
TA PHET. Iron vi^as used for weapons, particularly arrow-
heads, spears, and daggers; for tools such as chisels, adzes,
and tongs; nails for construction purposes; and for hoes.

Sirkap

Sirkap, the second city, covers approximately 111 hectares
(278 acres). The Bactrian Greeks who founded it early in
the second century B.C.E. chose a location of relatively flat
terrain immediately east of a small stream and incorpo-
rated in its walls a walled citadel. The outer wall is mas-
sive, varying between six and nine meters (20 and 30 ft.)
wide, with regularly spaced bastions. Local limestone was
used as the building material. Excavations of the northern
gateway revealed a substantial structure that was probably
more than one story high, which included guardrooms
and a well. About 180,000 square meters (72,000 sq. mi.)
of the northeastern quarter has been opened by excava-
tion and seven phases of occupation recognized. This
massive excavation encountered seven cultural phases
with a maximal depth of 6.6 meters. The lowest, Layer 7,
preceded the Greek foundation. The Greek city is found
in Layers 5 and 6, the early Scythian or Saka city is Layer
4, the late Scythian and Parthian cities are represented by
Layers 2 and 3, and there is some Kushan material on the
surface. Layer 1. In the Greek city the regular grid pattern
of streets and buildings followed the development of
Greek city plans in the West, and some idea of a Greek
dwelling can be derived from a house of 11 rooms around
a court. One room included a large ceramic storage jar.

By far the greatest quantity of cultural material is
from Layer 2, the Scythian-Parthian occupation. The reg-
ular grid pattern of the streets continued in use through-

Taxila 345

out, while the domestic buildings underwent modihca-
tions and rebuilding after a major earthquake. Marshall
published a plan of the city as it -would have appeared in
about 40 C.E. under the rule of the Parthian Gondo-
phares. New houses of stone were plastered and painted
in a variety of colors: blue, red, green, and yellow, as well
as white. Shops flanked the main thoroughfare, but the
visitor entering the city from the north gate and walking
down the main street would have noticed on the left the
stupa of a temple and, after another two city blocks, the
walled precinct of a Buddhist temple. The domestic
houses lie behind the shops and have one or more court-
yards as the focus of surrounding rooms. There are a few
latrines in the form of deep circular pits, but far fewer
than at the Bhir mound. Walls were of stone faced with
plaster. This appears to have been a rich quarter of Taxila,
for many opulent items of jewelry were recovered. A
ceramic jar in House 3B, for example, held gold ear pen-
dants, a gold necklace, gold bangles, a second gold neck-
lace of 83 beads, two solid silver bangles, and a carnelian
seal in a gold casing engraved with the figures of Eros
and Psyche. Several other hoards of golden jewelry were
found in other houses. Farther up the main street lies
what Marshall described as a palace. It has many rooms
linked by corridors, courts, and a stupa. This reconstruc-
tion of a substantial part of a city plan emphasizes the
potential of such archaeology in other major urban center
in the subcontinent. In the southeastern quarter, Marshall
identified a large building with multiple courts and
chambers that he described as the Mahal Palace.

Images of Daily Life

One of the most fascinating aspects of the excavation of
Sirkap, however, were the intimate glimpses into the
lives of the ordinary citizens provided by such extensive
excavations. In the 1928-29 season Marshall uncovered
the remains of 30 houses in an area of about one
hectare. An ivory comb had on one side an incised por-
trait of a man and woman, perhaps the people who
owned the house, and on the reverse side an energetic
goose. The man had short hair and a mustache; the
woman wore large ear pendants, and her hair was tied
in an elegant bun at the back, with short bangs at the
front. An adjacent house yielded a broken copper
medallion showing a woman holding a flower in a
design that Sir John Marshall found to be Greco-Roman.
Anther house held a schist plaque showing a man and
woman with elegant dress and hairstyles, holding cups
that may well have contained wine. There was also a
small iron vessel described as an inkpot. It still held the
remains of black ink and brings to mind the writing
found on birch bark scrolls dating to this period.
Another inkpot was made of bronze and had a serpen-
tine handle. A tiny figure carved in stone, standing no
more than 10 centimeters (4 in.) tall, is of a woman
holding a casket in both hands. She wears a tunic with

sleeves, a necklace, bangles, and anklets. The pleasures
of Sirkap, however, are nowhere better illustrated than
on a circular stone plaque 16 centimeters (6.4 in.) in
diameter on which a drinking scene has been carved. A
man is seated on a bench with his left arm around his
female companion as she offers him a glass of wine. A
woman plays a lyre, and a young man the panpipes. To
the right, two men tread on grapes in a large vat. In the
left foreground, a man pours wine into a large con-
tainer, while another samples it. Two further figures lie
in front of the wine containers, blissfully oblivious of
their surroundings.

Coinage

The coins from Sirkap are particularly instructive from a
historical point of view, for they give the names of the
Greek kings who ruled the city. The first dynasty
included Demetrius, followed by Pantaleon, Agathocles,
Apollodotus I, Menander, and Strato. A new line of rulers
followed, with the names Heliocles, Lysias, Antialcidas,
and Archebius, of the dynasty of Eucratides. The coins
bore the name of the ruler in Greek and Kharoshthi
scripts. Greek inspiration is also seen in some of the
terra-cotta figurines. The names of the subsequent
Scythian kings, such as Azilises, Azes I, and Azes II, are
also known from their issue of coins.

Marshall's excavations at Sirkap, particularly those
relating to the Scythian-Parthian phase in the upper lay-
ers, provide a remarkable image of life in this city. There
were numerous Buddhist temples and stupas and opulent
houses. Coins were in general circulation, and molds
indicate a local mint. The successful wore elegant gold
and silver jewelry and used mirrors, scent flasks, ear
cleaners, hairpins, toothpicks, and combs. There is little
evidence for the disposal of sewage. This may have
accounted for a visitation of plague. Children played with
toy carts and models of birds and animals. There is even
toy furniture of bone and ivory.

Sirsukh
The third city, known as Sirsukh, was founded by the
KUSHANS 1.5 kilometers to the northeast of Sirkap. It cov-
ered an area of 1,400 by 1,000 meters (1,540 by 1,100
yds.) and lay behind a large stone wall fortified with semi-
circular bastions. Little is known of the interior because of
lack of excavation but Marshall did uncover part of a large
stone building with rooms around a courtyard.

BUDDHIST SHRINES

A number of Buddhist monasteries were located beyond
the confines of the three cities described, but the most
intriguing of all the temples in the area of Taxila, albeit
not within a city wall, is the Jandial. It is located 600
meters north of Sirkap, adjacent to the main road leading
to the Indus River. It was a classical Greek temple with
Ionic columns. It almost certainly belongs to the Bactrian

346 Temmu

Greek period of occupation at Sirkap. The largest Bud-
dhist stupa and associated monastery at Taxila are kno-wn
as the Dharmarajika; possibly built by ASOKA (268-235
B.C.E.) of the Mauryan dynasty during his period as
viceroy there.

Further reading: Allchin, F. R. ed. The Archaeology of
Early Historic South Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1995; Dani, A. H. The Historic City of Taxila.
Delhi: Unipub, 1987; Marshall, J. Taxila, an Illustrated
Account of the Archaeological Excavations. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1951.

Temmu (6317-686 C.E.) Temmu was the 40th emperor
of Japan, who ruled the state of Yamato between 672 and
686 C.E.

He married his niece, who later became the empress JITO.
As Prince Oama, he rebelled against the succession of his
nephew in 672 as Emperor Kobun and fomented the civil
war known as the JINSHIN DISTURBANCE. His victory led to
his own succession and the move of the capital of Yamato
to Asuka. From there, he instituted a series of fundamen-
tal reforms that led to the establishment of central impe-
rial power over Japan. These involved the reduction in
the power of regional noble families in favor of the impe-
rial line. One means of achieving this objective was the
sponsorship of the official history of Japan, which in due
course appeared as the NIHONGI (720) and the KOJIKI
(712). These gave recognition to the ancient and sacred
origins of the royal lineage. He instituted land and social
reforms to order the tax base. Land was taken from the
noble families and vested in the emperor himself. He set
in train the legal reforms that led to the Taiho Code of
701. His ruling principles were recalled centuries later in
Japanese history.

Tenji (626-672 c.e.) Tenji was the 38th tenno, or
sovereign, of Japan.

The son of Emperor Jomei (593-641), he was known as
Prince Naka no Oe. On his father's death, his mother.
Empress Kogyoku, was enthroned, at a time when the
Soga family was all-powerful in the YAMATO state. When
aged 19, he conspired to overthrow this clan and then
began to introduce reforms based on his knowledge of
Tang Chinese administration, which favored a strong,
centralized state founded on the sanctity of the ruling
family. These are known as the TAIKA REEORMS. He acted
as the powerful regent during the reign of his uncle,
Kotoku, and again when his mother was again created
the tenno. From this position, he had more ability to
operate the levers of power than if he had been emperor.
His reign officially began in 661, but he was not conse-
crated until 668, by which time he had relocated the cap-
ital of Yamato to Otsu. His foreign policy was not
uniformly successful, for his support of FAEKCHE in its
struggle with SHILLA and Tang China led to a major mili-

tary defeat in 663. After his death, there was a bitter civil
war, known as the JINSHIN DISTURBANCE, between his
brother and his son, leading to the reign of the former,
who became Emperor TEMMU.

Tenjinyama Tenjinyama is a large settlement of the
middle YAYOI culture, located in eastern Honshu Island,
Japan, facing west toward the Inland Sea. There are many
sites in this region, representing the expansion of early
rice cultivators from their original area of development in
Kyushu. The Yayoi culture, dated from 300 B.C.E. to 300
C.E., was the seminal period in the evolution of Japanese
civilization and owes much to the arrival of newcomers
from southern Korea. After the long Jomon period of
hunting and gathering (10,000-300 B.C.E.), the Yayoi cul-
ture was characterized by wet rice cultivation, metallurgy
involving both iron and bronze, and expansion of mar-
itime trade. Tenjinyama is one of the sites that provide
evidence for a middle Yayoi settlement, with its house
plans, storage pits, and a probable community building
nearly seven meters (23 ft.) long in a ditched, defended
enclosure. It is likely that the city's foundation took place
as a result of a population spurt in the region as rice cul-
tivation formed the basis of a regular food supply to
sedentary village farmers. Two DOTAKU bells, both buried
in the vicinity of the site, may have been used in a ritual
activity.

tenno Tenno was a title taken by Japanese rulers of the
late YAMATO and NARA STATES from the rule of Emperor
TEMMU (6317-86 C.E.). It entered common usage under
Empress JITO (645-702). During this period, there were
many empresses, and the title, which means "heavenly
sovereign," is equally applicable to male or female rulers.
In the NIHONGI, completed in 720 C.E., sovereigns were
retrospectively accorded the title in a deliberate policy to
glorify the royal lineage.

Ter Ter is a major city located in the central Indian
state of Maharashtra, equidistant between the east and
west coasts of India. Commanding the Godavari River
routes, it occupied a strategic position for trade and was
described in the PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTHRAEAN SEA as
Tagara, a place that produced muslin cloth and played an
entrepreneurial role in the transmission of trade goods.
Limited excavations have provided convincing evidence
that the site was, in fact, a Satavahanan center during the
first century C.E. Molds for producing figurines and orna-
ments reveal the presence of craft workshops. A large
brick stupa was built during the following century, and it
seems that it was fortified with a wooden palisade.
See also SATAVAHANA.

Termez Termez commands a strategic location on the
upper reaches of the Amu Dar'ya River in Uzbekistan. It

Thap Mam 347

formed a nodal point on the SILK ROAD, linking Mary
(merv) with KAXGAR (Kashgar) to the east and BEGRAM to
the south. Termez was a foundation of the BACTRIAN
GREEKS, its name derived from its founder. King
Demetrius. Little is known of the site in its earliest phase
of occupation because the layers are buried deep below
later cities. However, it has yielded many Bactrian Greek
coins and Greek-style stone column bases. There is also
substantial evidence for occupation during the KUSHAN
period. By the early centuries C.E., the city walls enclosed
350 hectares (875 acres) and were surrounded by an
extensive area under agriculture. It was visited in the mid-
seventh century C.E. by the Chinese monk XUANZANG,
who commented on the number of Buddhist stupas and
monasteries there.

See also SHANG STATE.

Tillya Tepe Tillya Tepe, "Golden Hill," is located in a
commanding position south of the Amu Dar'ya River, in
northern Afghanistan. Its wealth and long sequence of
occupation are related to its strategic location for trade
and the opportunities for agriculture afforded by the fer-
tile Bactrian Plain. It was first occupied in the second
millennium B.C.E., when a temple probably devoted to
fire worship was built. During the period of Achaemenid
dominance in the sixth to fourth centuries B.C.E., it was
converted into a palace with the addition of a high BRICK
rampart. However, it suffered a severe fire, probably at the
hands of the invading Greeks in the fourth century B.C.E.
The site is best known for the KUSHAN-period cemetery
dating to the first century C.E. In 1970 an Afghan-Soviet
team examined this mound, beginning when it was
intact. At the end of the first season, much of the site was
removed by contractors for road fill, but the archaeolo-
gists arrived just in time to save the small intact area.
Their excavations revealed six graves about two meters

350 Tillya Tepe

(6.6 ft.) in depth. No surface markers were apparent; the
dead had been interred in wooden plank coffins rein-
forced with iron clamps. Five of the coffins had been cov-
ered in shrouds embellished with gold plaques, while the
sixth was encased in black and brown leather. The six
bodies had been interred fully clothed, with about 20,000
gold ornaments that were embellished with inlays of
TURQUOISE, garnet, and mother-of-pearl. Some personal
possessions lay beside the bodies. The disposition of the
gold in an assemblage dominated by plaques that had
been attached to at least three layers of clothing allowed
the styles of dress to be reconstructed. These six graves
belonged to a local Kushan princely family and have been
assigned, on the basis of the associated coins, to the first
century C.E.

BURIAL 1

Burial 1 was that of a woman aged between 25 and 35
years at death. Wearing a long robe, trousers, and shoes,
she was interred in a grave measuring 2.5 by 1.3 meters
(8.3 by 4.3 ft.). A cloak over her shoulders had been
embellished with a gold ornament showing a man riding
on the back of a dolphin. She wore a gold earring in the
form of a boat and a hairpin of gold, pearls, and leaf-
shaped attachments. Her ivory toilet box still contained a
white face powder, and other cosmetics included anti-
mony crystals and pieces of pink rouge. Even her tweez-
ers with a wooden handle survived.

BURIAL 2

Burial 2 was found in a coffin of wooden planks secured
by heavy iron clasps; the coffin had been covered in a
shroud embroidered with gold and silver plaques. The
woman, -who died when aged between 30 and 40, was
oriented with her dead pointing to the north and wore a
remarkable array of ornaments, including a gold diadem
and a gold torque. The beads of her necklace were made
of gold and ivory, and ornaments of musicians, also in
gold, lay beside each shoulder. A Chinese bronze mirror
had been placed on her chest. Tiny models of feet, a fish,
hands, and an ax were found at the wrists. Gold bangles
were decorated with images of antelopes, and the surface
wear shows that they would have been worn in life. She
wore a long robe that had been held in place by a remark-
able clasp depicting two identical dolphins being rode by
cupids. The dolphin motif is of Greco-Roman inspiration,
but features of this artifact, such as the bracelets and
anklets on the cupids, reveal local input. One of the two
rings on her left hand bears an image of Athena, together
with the name Athena incised backward on the surface.
This suggests that it had been used as a SEAL.

BURIAL 3

Burial 3 also held a female, aged between about 18 and
25 years at death. The coffin had been placed between
two layers of animal hide, one painted black and the

other brown. The coffin was oriented with the head to
the north. This burial had been disturbed by rodent activ-
ity, but it was still evident that the head had been placed
over a gold bowl. She wore at least three layers of cloth-
ing, as can be determined by three clasps one over the
other on the chest. These lay near a Chinese silver mirror.
A silver coin of the Parthian king Mithridates II (r.
123—88 B.C.E.) was found beside the hands, as if she had
been holding it, and a golden coin of the Roman emperor
Tiberius, minted in the French city of Lugudunum
between 16 and 21 C.E., was found outside the coffin.
The mass of gold ornaments included a large torque
around the neck and a pendant in the form of two horses,
inlaid with garnet and turquoise. The popular theme of
cupids riding dolphins is also found in this burial in the
form of a clasp. The intriguing point about these motifs is
that the dolphin image was popular in Greek art, as seen
depicted at AY KHANUM in northern Afghanistan, but the
dolphins were transformed in Kushan art into local river
fish. Greco-Roman influence is also illustrated by another
clasp from this burial in the form of a warrior armed in
Mediterranean style, the helmet closely paralleled in the
portraits of Greco-Bactrian kings on their coin issues.
This woman also wore a unique pair of shoes with gold
soles, fastened by gold plaques. Her cosmetics were
placed in the grave in ivory containers, together with an
ivory comb.

BURIAL 4

A horse's skull was found in the fill of Burial 4, the coffin
of which had been covered by a lattice of wooden laths,
which had supported a mat. This would have prevented
the fill of the grave from raining down on top of the coffin.
The coffin contained the skeleton of a man judged to have
stood nearly two meters tall. His head lay on a gold vessel
associated with a tree fashioned from gold with fruit of
pearls. A model of an ibex, of clear Bactrian Greek origin,
had also been attached to this vessel. He wore weaponry: a
sword and a dagger both in gold-plated scabbards and a
second dagger with an ivory hilt. A quiver with a deco-
rated silver lid was filled with iron arrowheads, and two
bows lay nearby. The dagger with gold sheath also has a
gold haft, decorated with fantastic animals that include a
dragon embellished with turquoise inlay. A bear cub is
seen on the pommel of this weapon, gripping a vine with
grapes in its mouth. One coin was found in the grave. It
depicts the wheel of the law (dharmacakra) and a lion,
with the inscription "as fearless as a lion." It is unique, but
coins that are not dissimilar were minted at Ay Khanum in
the reign of the Bactrian Greek king Agathocles. The style
of dress represented by the surviving ornaments can be
partially reconstructed and compared with known reliefs
depicting Kushans. These show men wearing trousers
tucked into short boots and a tunic fastened at the waist by
a belt into which a scabbard is fixed.

titles 351

BURIAL 3

Burial 5 had been interred in a log coffin wrapped in a
shroud embellished with silver disks. The young woman
■was aged between 15 and 20 years at death, and it may be
that her youth accounts for the less opulent set of grave
goods. Nevertheless, she was interred with a silver wand
or scepter, gold anklets, and a superb pectoral of gold,
garnet, and turquoise. Her mirror was fashioned from sil-
ver and had been encased in fabric embroidered in gold
thread and pearls.

BURIAL 6

The last burial was equipped -with a wooden plank cof-
fin, again covered by a wooden trellis that had supported
mats to exclude the soil that backfilled the grave. It con-
tained a woman who died when aged between 25 and 30
years. Her head lay on a silver bowl, and she wore a gold
crown. A gold figurine of a -winged goddess lay on her
chest, and she held in her right hand a golden scepter.
Her shoes had been adorned with gold disks. As with
other women in this cemetery, personal cosmetics had
been placed in the grave, together with iron tweezers
and a Chinese mirror. A silver coin had been placed in
her mouth, a Greek custom. Its Greek text attributes it to
the Parthian king Phraates IV (r. 38-32 B.C.E.). A later
stamped text belongs to the reign of an early Kushan
leader named Sapaleisis. A unique gold Parthian coin
■was clutched in the left hand of the dead -woman.

The treasure from these six royal burials reveals sev-
eral sources. There are, for example, items of clear Bac-
trian Greek origin (300-145 B.C.E.), such as the gold
figure of an ibex and an intaglio of a ruler wearing a
Greek-style helmet. Chinese mirrors dating to the HAN
DYNASTY (206 B.C.E.-200 C.E.) were found, together with
v\rhat appear to be local imitations. There are also
Roman and Parthian coins. The local goldsmiths, how-
ever, also took exotic motifs and re-worked them within
their o-wn experience, most clearly seen in the figures
riding dolphins, in which the sea mammal -was depicted
as a local river fish. Certain forms also hark back to the
art of the steppes, as seen in the Scythian animal forms.
It is evident that the early Kushan rulers of -what was
once a Greek kingdom relished costumes virtually cov-
ered in gold ornaments, and only by the narro-west of
margins were the 20,000 golden items from Tillya-tepe
saved from the bulldozer and grave robber.

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